Do you have friends who are obsessed with achieving the perfect body shape, fitness, training at the gym, and spending on expensive gym memberships and protein products like Whey protein? I have plenty and this fitness trend is becoming commonplace on social media especially Instagram. Why are more and more people training indoors in the gym like professional athletes rather than casually playing sport outdoors with friends on picnic days? Popular fitness Instagram profiles include Bart Kwan, Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, Arnold Schwarzeneggar, Cassey Ho (Blogilates), Emily Skye, Sjana Elise Earp, Kayla Itsines, Misty Copeland, Izabel Goulart, Ronda Rousey and Thor Björnsson. They upload clips of their strength, weight training exercise routines and showcase their shredded body shapes. So far, I haven’t found any studies that did a thorough cumulative frequency count of fitness profiles on Instagram right now and counting. According to a 2017 Roy Morgan study, less Australians are regularly participating in competitive sports. Whether it’s 1-on-1 or multi-team, the number of Australians aged 14 and over has declined consistently since 2001. Over the past 15 years, more Australians are walking for exercise, jogging, cycling, gymming, yoga-ing. However, fewer are playing many of the competitive sports including golf, tennis, cricket, netball, AFL, lawn bowls, pool/snooker/billiards, ten pin bowling, field hockey, softball, squash, ballroom dancing and rugby union. Meanwhile, more people are playing soccer, basketball, martial arts, athletics/track & field, badminton, rowing, triathlons and baseball. Factors that account for this consistent declines include:
— An ageing Australian population
— Conservative approaches by parents fearing serious injury
— Bullying from peers and under-utilisation of precious time on academia
— Career-oriented sedentary lifestyles
— Organising perfect sporting schedules relative to other competing sports and the seasons that satisfies people’s schedules and expectations
— Expensive sports memberships
— Stagnated economic support for grassroots and grass plains
— Lack of casual sporting events hence opportunities
— Competitive nature between a large pool of students vying for limited spots
— Rise of free-to-download technological casual sports gameplay on portable electronic devices
— Lack of discussion regarding breaking the stigma between talent, professionalism and fun
— Corruption amongst the main sporting departments and organisations
— Lack of sportsmanship and respect demonstrated by sporting champions
— Lack of promotions and awareness campaigns by sporting celebrities
These declines in sport participation is apparent across all age groups and both sexes. Men and women older than 24 were becoming increasingly less likely to participate in any competitive sport that requires high energy expenditure and brutal physicality.
Today, the gym and fitness industry is flourishing in countries home to many national and international players jumping out of the blocks. This exponentially increasing popularity of gym participation is often due to:
— Growing health and fitness awareness = We are aware that rising cases of osteoporosis and decreased bone density are common side-effects of hectic urban sedentary lifestyles. This prompts people to undertake health, diet and fitness programs in order to improve their cardiovascular fitness and boost overall health, as well as reduce stress, anxiety and depression and the risk of other diseases affecting health.
— Fitness being open to all ages in both sexes = Thanks to the internet, TV and expanding education levels, we are witnessing a paradigm shift in perspective of everyone, whom now view exercising as a serious affair. We, people of all ages, are constantly reminded by health experts, nutritionists and doctors about the benefits of exercising. But we should be aware of our bodies’ different metabolic and physical requirements depending on our age as ageing is an indispensable part of life.
— Penetration of International Brands = You will notice weight loss advertisements and billboards popping up everywhere in your city in regards to the growing obesity and diabetes crisis. These awareness campaigns have led to increases in health club and gym memberships. This preventative approach to health care has not only increased demand for health and fitness services but also health products too. Powerful, popular and established fitness chains and gyms are expanding their products and services portfolios to compete in the global market and reach out to potential customers. Many such companies have acquired equity to fuel their expansion plans. Many national fitness chains and gyms are increasingly taking their franchisee route to enter the global market.
— A growing gym culture = We are witnessing a growing gym and fitness culture remonstrated on social media as more people are embracing the gym for purposes of power enhancement, improved fitness or simply being part of the growing trend.
— Easy access to a variety of heavy equipment = Most gyms supply a wide array of equipment including cardio machines, strength machines, weights, boxing kits and various functional training gears (TRX, fit balls, resistance bands etc.) that aid in regular exercises. This availability of a plethora of apparatus is the primary reason committing many fitness fanatics to the gym.
— Availability of personalised fitness training programmes = The presence of personal trainers on standby brings in accountability, reliability and sincerity when newcomers are learning about which exercises suit their body, how to perform such exercises, how many repetitions are sufficient and the gimmicks of a nutritional diet to support their fitness program. Personalised training assists people in keeping up with their fitness targets and following a systematic workout module that suits their respective fitness needs and goals. Moreover, it provides professional advice on techniques and importance of correct diet and equipment.
— Rises in personal disposable income = Initially seen as a luxury, but now spending on fitness and gym memberships has become a norm in modern lifestyles. Accelerating urbanisation, rising middle class and increasing disposable incomes boost our need to attend the gym. Since the young working-age population with adequate disposable income in hand is leading to a sedentary lifestyle, thereby, attracting various diseases, it’s expected the demand for more local gyms is expected to soar.
— Drastic increases in government allocation on health and fitness = Healthcare is an important sector of revenue and employment across every society, which comprises hospitals, medical devices, clinical trials, outsourcing, telemedicine, medical tourism, health insurance and medical equipment. Fitness equipment also forms a major segment, which comprises of retail and wholesale sellers of gym equipment like dumbbells, treadmill etc. This ensures fitness services earns a boost in government support.
As a result of all factors, the gym and fitness industries across the world has bright days ahead of them and it’s poised to spread by 20-30% every year.
In the past several decades, the world has witnessed a large shift towards less physically demanding work and a more sedentary lifestyle. This was accompanied by increased use of mechanised transportation, increased prevalence of labour saving technology in the home, and less active recreational pursuits. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), at least 31% of the world’s population, particularly in almost all developed and developing countries and among children, aren’t performing adequate physical exercise. Experts refer to the act of sitting as the “new smoking” because of its negative effects on overall health. These modern exercise trends contribute to the increasing incidence of chronic diseases including: obesity, heart disease, stroke and high cholesterol. A 2008 study found that active transport like walking, jogging and cycling etc. has an inverse relationship with obesity in Europe, North America and Australia. Hence, exercise has an inverse relationship with mortality.
One of the most prevalent causes of the lack of exercise in the developing world is urbanisation. Because the majority of an exploding population moves to cities, this leads to population over-crowding, increased poverty, increased levels of crime, high-density traffic, low air quality and lack of parks, sidewalks and recreational sports facilities, which leads to a less active lifestyle. Physical inactivity is found to be increasing or at higher levels among many groups in the population including: young people, women and the elderly. A 2005 South Brazilian population study discovered that physical inactivity during leisure time was more prevalent among females and those living with a partner. This finding positively correlated with age and number of cigarettes smoked, while it negatively correlated with years of formal education, body mass index, and increasing socioeconomic status. Studies conducted in the 1990s and 2000 on children and adults discovered a relationship between the number of hours of television watched and the prevalence of obesity. A 2008 meta-analysis implicated 63 out of 73 studies (86%) concluded that media exposure positively correlated with rates of childhood obesity, which are increasing proportionally to time spent watching television. A 2005 study noted another possible cause of physical inactivity in the case of children is that physical activity in activities from self-propelled transport, to school physical education, and organised sports is declining in many countries.
The decreasing rates of exercise contributes to the increasing rates of non-communicable diseases, which is responsible for the greatest public health problem in most countries around the world. Each year at least 1.9 million people pass away as a result of physical inactivity, making it one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide.
— Between 1961 and 2002, the participation rates of Australian children in aerobic fitness is declining.
— In Canada, 27% of sedentary men are classified as obese as opposed to 19.6% of active men. Lean people were found to be more fidgety than their obese counterparts, which is maintained even if normal weight people eat more or the obese person loses weight. Canadian health data indicates that only 10% of Canadian youth are satisfying the guidelines for screen time of less than 2 hours per day. Despite only 2/3 of families living close enough for their children to bike or walk to school, only a third report actually walking to school and 80% report never having cycled to school.
— In China, urbanisation reduced daily energy expenditure by about 300–400 kcal and commuting to work by bus or car reduced the same parameter by a further 200 kcal. Between the 1980s and 2000s, Asians have demonstrated a rapid decline in physical activity due to advancing technology in the workplace and changing leisure activities. In 1989, 65% of Chinese were employed in heavy labour jobs. In 2000, that figure has decreased to 51%. Among Asian children between 1917 and 2003, power and speed remained constant but endurance has decreased substantially in the last 10–15 years.
— In Finland, between 1971 and 2002, leisure-time physical activity increased, while occupational and commuting physical activity decreased. Furthermore:
Leisure-time physical activity increased from 66% (1972) to 77% (2002) in men and from 49% (1972) to 76% (2002) in women.
Physically demanding work decreased from 60% (1972) to 38% (2002) in men and from 47% (1972) to 25% (2002) in women.
Daily commuting activity decreased from 30% (1972) to 10% (2002) in men and from 34% (1972) to 22% (2002) in women.
— In the Netherlands (Holland), between 1994 and 2007, walking and cycling has been stable as a mode of transport. Every year, the average Dutch citizen walked 240 km (150 mi) and cycled 908 km (564 mi). Beginning in 2012, CrossFit is a unique training program that combines a physical exercise philosophy and a competitive fitness sport. The program’s workouts utilise elements from high-intensity interval training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, powerlifting, gymnastics and other exercises. This trend has proven to be successful worldwide and has over 13,000 members in affiliated gyms. Since 2003, personal training in the Netherlands gained enormous popularity where they hire a personal trainer certified to attain various knowledge of general fitness involved exercise prescription and instruction. This motivates clients by setting goals and providing feedback to clients. Moreover, obstacle training centrums in the Netherlands are quite popular with companies like UNITEDFIT including the social aspect to training for an obstacle course. Obstacles courses are a series of challenging physical obstacles an individual or a team need to complete while being timed. They include running, climbing, jumping, crawling, swimming, and balancing elements of testing speed and endurance. Some courses test the mentality of the participant.
— In South America, over 60% of the populations of Brazil, Chile and Peru fail to meet recommended levels of physical activity needed to maintain health. A 2005 southern Brazilian study found that less than 80% of the population was physically inactive.
— A 2003 study conducted on Swedish males found a significant decrease in total physical exercise despite the increase in recreational exercise. This was caused by a decrease in work place exercise and physical exercise in transportation.
— Between 1955 and 2005, Americans overall became physically inactive. While the rate of leisure-time physical activity barely changed, there has been a decrease in work-related activity, human powered transportation, activity in the home, and increasing sedentary lifestyle. Between 2000 and 2005, he number of adults who were never physically active increased from 9.4% to 10.3% while the number of Americans who were engaged in the highest level of physical activity decreased from 18.7% to 16.7%. Pertaining to leisure-time physical activity, the proportion of Americans not involved in any activity increased from 38.5% to 40.0% while those who spent most of their day sitting increased from 36.8% to 39.9%.
In 2000, the CDC estimated that more than 40% of the USA population was sedentary, another 30% was active but not sufficiently and less than 30% had an adequate level of physical activity. It’s apparent there is an increasing trend toward decreased physical activity due to increasingly mechanised forms of work, changing modes of transportation, and increasing urbanisation. It’s no surprise obesity rates have increased in relation to urban sprawl. This has been attributed to increased time spent commuting, which decreases physical exercise and meal preparation at home. Between 1983 and 1990 in America, the number of trips taken by foot decreased from 9% down to 7%. This is due to American parents preferring to driver their children to school as a safety precaution. Therefore, between 1969 and 2001, the proportion of American children who walk or bike to school declined from 42% to 16%, which resulted in less exercise.
— In England, since 1975, English people preferenced motorised transport over both walking and cycling. In 2005, the average British citizen walked 317 km (197 mi) per year, which is 106 km (66 mi) less since 1975.
Why are humans exercising less?
Theories of humans suggest that humans preference immediate experience over future long-term rewards. This implies the difficulty to perform a physically demanding activity that causes initial discomfort even if it earns us health benefits later on. In the initial stages, we perceive exercise as uncomfortable relative to our typical reality. This is because we live in a modern society where we:
Adjust the room temperature according to our bodily homeostatic systems all year round
Wrap ourselves in comfortable clothing that suits our skin texture
Wear thick-soled shoes to protect our feet from serious physical harm like sharp, rough, and jagged surfaces of rocks, glass, and spiky branches
Lay on cushy beds draped in soft covers
Shower and scrub our dirty bodies with lukewarm shower water and anti-bacterial soap every day, on average.
This First-World pampering provides us too much comfort, which may lead us to perceive even the mildest physical discomfort as unpleasant. The most common discomforts complained about towards exercise are perspiration, hyperthermia, hypothermia, dyspnea, messy hair, muscle pain, blisters and calluses, wetness, alighting from the bed and socialising during cold and gloomy days or nights, filthiness and lack of privacy at the gym.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3441783/
A 2012 study concludes motivation as a critical factor in sustaining physical exercise, which in turn associates with essential health outcomes. It investigated the self-determination theory (SDT) in relation to exercise motivation. Their findings uncovered consistent support for a positive correlation between autonomous motivation and exercise. There seems to be trend towards identified regulation predicting initial / short-term adoption more strongly than intrinsic motivation, which is more predictive of long-term exercise adherence. It also uncovered positive predictions between competence satisfaction, more intrinsic motives and exercise participation. However, there were mixed results concerning the role of other types of motives (e.g., health/fitness and body-related), and the specific nature and consequences of introjected regulation. However, future research is required to distinctly refine the application of SDT to exercise and physical activity promotion.
Fitness culture is a sociocultural phenomenon referring to the culture surrounding physical exercises. It usually associates with gym culture, as performing physical exercises in specific locations such as gyms, wellness centres and health clubs is a popular activity. A 2013 international survey conducted by Les Mills Global Consumers found that more than 27% of world total adult population attends fitness centres, and that 61% of regular exercisers are currently doing "gym-type" activities.
How did fitness culture come about?
https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/history.html
One of the greatest achievements of the 21st century is the continuous pursuit of fitness since the beginning of man’s existence. Throughout the prehistoric time, man’s quest for fitness was driven by a desire to survive through hunting and gathering. Though no longer driven by subsistence requirements, today’s fitness remains paramount to health and wellbeing. Below are highlights of historical events and influential individuals who shaped the history of fitness beginning with primitive man up to the foundation of modern fitness movement.
(i) Primitive man and fitness (pre-10,000 B.C.)
Humans that lived primitive nomadic lifestyles continuously hunted and gathered food for survival. Ancient tribes often spent 1 or 2 days scourging for food and water. Regular physical activity was a principal component of primitive life especially for endurance journeys. Following successful hunting and gathering excursions, celebrations events included trips of 6 - 20 miles to neighbouring tribes where they would join friends and family in the dancing and cultural games carnivals which often lasted hours. This Paleolithic pattern of subsistence pursuit and celebration defined human life as a whole, as it demanded high fitness levels and consisted of various forms of physical activity.
(ii) Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (10,000 - 8000 B.C.)
This period marked the conclusion of primitive lifestyle and signified the dawn of civilisation. It was defined by significant agricultural developments including animal and plant domestication, and the invention of the plow. These human advancements helped hunting-gathering tribes obtain vast amounts of food while situating in the premises. This transformed primitive man into an agrarian (agricultural and farming) society. This era in history symbolised the beginning of a more sedentary lifestyle, as man began to alleviate some hardships of life while simultaneously decreasing daily physical activity.
(iii) Ancient civilisation: China and India (2500 - 250 B.C.)
The teachings of Chinese philosopher Confucius encouraged participation in regular physical activity, which recognised that physical inactivity associated with certain diseases that caused organ malfunctions and internal stoppages reminiscent of heart disease and diabetes. These diseases were observed as preventable if one regularly exercised for fitness. Consequently, Cong Fu gymnastics was invented to ensure the human body was in satisfactory, working condition. Cong Fu exercise programs consisted of various stances and movements, characterised by separate food positions and imitations of different animal fighting styles. Other forms of physical activity also existed throughout ancient China including archery, badminton, dancing, fencing and wrestling.
In India, individual pursuit of fitness was discouraged by Buddhist and religious beliefs of Buddhism and Hinduism, but rather emphasised spirituality and neglected the development of the body. Consequently, Indian societies disregarded the importance of fitness. Although still conforming to religious beliefs, an exercise program similar to Chinese Cong Fu gymnastics called Yoga was invented, though its exact origin is yet to be found. Nevertheless, it’s known that Yoga existed for the past 5000 years. Yoga comes from Indian word for “union”, referring to one of the classic systems of Hindu philosophy that strived to unite and personally develop the body, mind and spirit. It was originally developed by Hindu priests who lived frugal lifestyles full of discipline and meditation. Their observations and mimes of animal movement and patterns helped achieve the same balance with nature that animals possessed. Hatha Yoga is a form of Yoga most familiar with Westerners and is defined by a series of exercises in physical posture and breathing patterns. Bedsides balance with nature, ancient Indian philosophers recognised the health benefits of Yoga including proper organ function and improved wellbeing. Modern-day Westeners have acknowledged these health benefits, with an estimated 12 million people regularly participating in Yoga.
(iv) The Near East (4000 - 250 B.C.)
Early political and military leaders within the civilisations of Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Palestine, Persia and Syria realised the importance of fitness in efficiency and performance of military forces. The Persian Empire was regarded as the best example of a civilisation utilising fitness for its political and military agendas. Its leaders demanded strict physical fitness from its people after implementing rigid training programs. Boys at the age of 6 were owned by the Empire and underwent vigorous training including hunting, marching, riding, and javelin throwing. These fitness training programs improved strength and stamina unintentionally brought health benefits, but rather intentionally produced more able soldiers to help expand the Empire. The Persian Empire during its height, with its policy and stance on high fitness, eventually encompassed all of the Near East. However, emphasis on fitness levels throughout the Persian civilisation declined as affluence and corruption entangled political and military leaders. The downfall and collapse of the Persian Empire occurred at a time when society could largely be characterised by an overall lack of fitness.
(v) Ancient Greek Civilisation (2500 - 200 B.C.)
- Athens: Ancient Greek civilisation regarded fitness as the highest priority because of their embodied idealism of physical perfection. Their appreciation of beauty of the body and emphasis of health and fitness throughout society is unparalleled in history. The Greeks believed body development was equally as essential as mind development. They deemed physical wellbeing necessary for mental wellbeing, hence a strong, healthy body was required to harbour a sound mind. Many founding medical practitioners facilitated the growth throughout ancient Greece, including the likes of Herodicus, Hippocrates, and Galen.
A common saying in ancient Greek times was “exercise for the body and music for the soul”, which made gymnastics, as well as music, the most crucial classroom topic. Gymnastics was situated in the palaestras, sites of physical education for young boys. The palaestra consisted of an indoor facility for gymnastics, as well as an outdoor area for running, jumping, and wrestling. When children reached adulthood, typically between the ages of 14 and 16 at the time, the location for fitness training was altered to gymnasiums. Exercise performed in the palaestra and gymnasium was supervised by the paidotribe, not too dissimilar to the modern fitness trainer. This idealistic fitness situation existed most strongly within Athens, often characterised as a democratic society similar to the United States.
- Sparta: The Spartans of Northern Greece valued fitness more than the Athenians. Nevertheless, the increased interest in fitness within Spartan culture was primarily for military purposes. During this era, Greek states were frequently fighting with each other. There seemed to be a correlation between fighting skills and physical fitness, which made it imperative for individuals to maintain high fitness levels. Spartan authorities required young males to enter special fitness programs when they turn 6. From this point until adulthood, the Spartan government took responsibility of the child’s upbringing and training. The boys’ upbringing consisted of rigorous training programs to ensure their development and growth until they were highly fit adult soldiers. Girls were also required to maintain satisfactory physical health because they were important in producing strong offspring who could potentially serve the military. This military-dominated culture of Sparta resulted in one of the most physically fit societies in the history of mankind.
(vi) Roman Civilisation (200 B.C. - 476 A.D.)
The Roman Empire was the antithesis of the ancient Greek civilisation. The overall physical fitness level of the Roman civilisation was highest during its time of conquest and expansion. During this era, all Roman citizens aged 17 to 60 were eligible for the military draft. Therefore, it was integral for all Roman citizens to maintain excellent physical health in order to be prepared to military service. The Roman military training included the usual activities such as running, marching, jumping, as well as discus and javelin throwing. This lifestyle resulted in stronger, fitter people who conquered nearly all of the Western World. However, the fitness levels of the general Roman population decreased as individuals became enamoured with wealth and entertainment, such as the gladiator battles. It was then apparent that the Roman population prioritised materialistic acquisition and excess over physical condition. The lavish lifestyle and physical decay eventually took its toll as the Roman civilisation plummeted to the physically superior Barbarian tribes from Northern Europe.
(vii) The Dark Ages (476 - 1000) & The Middle Ages (900 - 1400)
This era marked the fall of the Roman Empire, which was conquered by Barbarians from Northern Europe. This signified the beginning of a millennium of intellectual standstill. However, these occurrences were actually beneficiaries with respect to fitness. The lavish lifestyles of the Romans caused the deterioration of the Roman society’s fitness level. Meanwhile, the barbaric tribes from Northern Europe possessed traits similar to primitive people. Their lifestyle consisted of hunting and gathering food, and tending to livestock. they still considered physical activity and fitness as prerequisites for survival. Therefore, despite the cultural setbacks that occurred with the crumbling of the Roman Empire, fitness culture was somewhat revived during the Dark and Middle Ages.
(viii) The Renaissance (1400 - 1600)
Following the Dark and Middle Ages, the rebirth of cultural learning from the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations gave rise to the Renaissance. This sparked a renewed interest in the human body from people of this period. They picked up ancient Greek ideals, which glorified the human body, which became accepted. Individuals like Martin Luther (religious leader), John Locke (philosopher), Vittorino de Feltra, John Comenius, and Richard Mulcaster (physical educators) maintained that high fitness levels enhanced intellectural learning.
Civilisations that recognised the importance of fitness needed an avenue to convey this knowledge to their people. Therefore, fitness and physical education share a common bond. Physical education was a tool being used to spread the benefits and values of fitness throughout human society. School programs, primarily in ancient Greece, had previously recognised the necessity for curriculums involving physical education. This rejuvenated appreciation for human life evolved during the Renaissance and created an environment ready for widespread development of physical education throughout Europe.
(iix) National Period in Europe (1700 - 1850)
During this era, continental Europe underwent numerous cultural transformations following the Renaissance. Because fitness remained essential and continued to follow trends initiated during the Renaissance, physical education programs expanded within emerging European nations. Intense feelings of nationalism and independence generated the atmosphere for the first modern fitness movement in the form of gymnastics programs. Gymnastics endorsed the immense popularity across Europe, with prevalence in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain.
- Germany: The expansion of gymnastics in Germany primarily attributed to the work of 2 physical educators named Johann Guts Muths and Friedrich Jahn. Guts Muths was known as the “Grandfather of German Gymnastics” because he invented numerous exercise programs and the equipment upon which they were performed. He outlined his lifetime works and achievements in 2 books: “Gymnastics for the Young and Games”. Friedrich Jahn was dubbed “Father of German Gymnastics” for his long-lived work. Early into Jahn’s lifetime, Napoleon conquered much of Europe, including Germany. With its downfall to France, Germany subsequently segregated into separate states. Jahn’s passion for German nationalism and independence drove the creation of gymnastic programs. His belief of physical development of the German population could prevent future susceptibility to foreign invasion. Shortly thereafter, exercise facilities that housed apparatuses designed for running, jumping, balancing, climbing and vaulting called “Turnvereins” developed throughout Germany.
- Sweden: Per Henrik Ling developed and introduced his own gymnastics program to Sweden, consisting of 3 different areas: 1) Educational gymnastics, 2) Military gymnastics, and 3) Medical gymnastics. Ling’s strong medical background made him recognise that exercise was necessary for all people. He maintained that exercise programs were to be devised according to individual differences. He also advised physical educators the essence of knowledge of the effects of exercise on the human body. Ling used science and physiology to better understand the importance of fitness.
- Denmark: Initially began teaching out of this home, Frank Nachtegall introduced and helped popularise gymnastic programs throughout Denmark. He was deeply concerned with the development of gymnastic programs within Danish school systems. Childhood interest in physical activity sparked Nachtegall’s fascination with fitness. Therefore, he taught in a private facility devoted entirely to physical training. Later, he was appointed director of a program designed to prepare future fitness instructors called “Training Teachers of Gymnastics”.
- England: British medical student Archibald Maclaren spread the word on the benefits of fitness and regular exercise. Like Per Henrik Ling of Sweden, Marclaren had fascination in the scientific components of fitness. His lifetime works in these areas are recorded in “National Systems of Bodily Exercise” and “Training in Theory and Practice”. Based on his work, Marclaren made several observations that were incredibly similar to present-day exercise recommendations. Firstly, he believed the cure for weariness and stress was physical action. Secondly, he noted recreational exercise found in games and sport was insufficient for attaining adequate fitness levels. Thirdly, he realised both developing boys and girls required regular physical exercise. In agreement with Ling, Marclaren also recognised the requirement for individual variation in fitness training programs, hence documented the importance of progression of exercise.
(ix) America - Colonial Period (1700 - 1776)
During this era, hardships of colonial life ensured that regular physical activity continued to be a lifestyle priority, but there wasn’t any organised exercise or fitness programs around. Colonial America remained an underdeveloped country characterised by vast unexplored land and wilderness. Lifestyle during this era largely involved plowing the land for crops, hunting for food, and herding cattle. It provided sufficient levels of physical activity without additional need or demand for exercise to maintain fitness levels.
(x) United States - National Period (1776 - 1860)
During this era, fitness in the United States was influenced by European cultures. Immigrants brought many aspects of their heritage with them to the United States, including German and Swedish gymnastics. European dynamics, foreign to the United States, were constant threats to independence and nationalism from foreign invasion. Hence, German and Swedish gymnastic programs failed to attain the same levels of popularity as in Europe. Nevertheless, early leaders in the United States were conscious of the need for exercise and running. Benjamin Franklin recommended regular physical activity, including running, swimming, and basic forms of resistance training for health purposes. President Thomas Jefferson acknowledged the necessity for fitness, although to an extreme measure, by stating “Not less than 2 hours a day should be devoted to exercise, and the weather shall be little regarded. If the body is feeble, the mind will not be strong”.
European schools were an important medium for spreading the need for fitness to society through physical education programs. However, schools in the United States primarily focused their educational processes on intellectual matters. Those schools concentrated on teaching traditional subjects including reading, writing and arithmetic. Astoundingly, physical education was lacking from the public education system for a large proportion of the 19th century. Despite the relative disinterest in fitness existing during this era, J.C. Warren and Catherine Beecher made significant contributions to the future of fitness in America. Dr. J.C. Warren was a medical professor at Harvard University who became a major proponent of physical activity. His medical background provided him a sound understanding of the necessity for regular exercise. He recommended exercises such as gymnastics and calisthenics. Furthermore, Warren devised exercises suited for females, whilst Beecher specifically devised fitness programs that cater for the needs of women. Among her many different programs was a system of calisthenics programs performed to music. Although she wasn’t formally recognised in name, Beecher’s programs of the mid-19th century bear remarkable similarities to modern-day aerobics.
(xi) United States - Post-Civil War (1865 - 1900)
During this era, the Industrial Revolution was regarded as one of the most important events with respect to modern fitness in the United States because it stimulated widespread cultural changes throughout the country. Advancements in industrial and mechanical technologies replaced jobs that were labour-intensive. Rural life transitioned to a more urban lifestyle. This neo-city life generally involved less movement and work compared to rural life, which consequently decreased physical activity levels. At the turn of the 19th century, the most common causes of death were from influenza, polio, rubella, and other infectious diseases. The risk of disease and mortality from these infectious diseases were alleviated with the discovery of Penicillin. Beginning around the 1950s, the cost of industrialisation and urbanisation became glaringly apparent. An epidemic of never-before-prevalent hypokinetic diseases including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and Type II diabetes was recognised as the leading causes of disease and death during this era. The lifestyle improvements carried by the Industrial Revolution had apparently possessed unwanted and alarming costs to health.
- Physical Education: Following the end of the Civil War in 1865, Swedish and German gymnastics’s popularity moderately increased. However, the most popular form of gymnastics during this period was “The New Gymnastics”, introduced by Dioclesian Lewis. Individuals who played crucial roles in the development of this new fitness program were Edward Hitchcock, William Anderson, and Dudley Sargent. Hitchcock recognised that combining gymnastics with fitness yielded improved health as the desired outcome of his fitness program. He also introduced the concept of utilising anthropometric measurements to assess fitness progress. Sargent added scientific research to fitness instruction and developed organised instructor teaching methodologies. Anderson’s lifetime work on physical education instruction greatly contributed to the development of a professional organisation. One argument developed during the post-Civil War era that still exists today discusses the value of incorporating exercise programs it had on improving health-related fitness. However, sports were also becoming popular in the United States during this era. Consequently, the majority of physical education programs concentrated on sports and games. This debate between health-related fitness and skill-related fitness physical education programs continues to linger.
(xii) The 20th Century
This period symbolised the beginning of a new era of fitness leaders: the Presidents of the United States. Theodore Roosevelt was regarded as the most physically fit President to occupy the oval office, who led the nation into the new century. He recognised the importance of exercise and physical activity, and encouraged American citizens to be physically activity. President T. Roosevelt was infatuated with fitness similar to the ideology of ancient Greece. His desire for physical fitness evolved out of his childhood battle with asthma, which he miraculously overcome with a rigorous exercise program. During this presidency, he was engaged in multiple forms of physical activity including hiking, horseback riding, and other outdoor endeavours. Although not all the presidents share Roosevelt’s high regard for fitness, they recognised that the position required a commitment to the fitness of the American citizens nonetheless.
- World War I: On August 1914, World War I broke out in Europe, with the intervention of the United States into the battle occurring in 1917. 100,000s of American military personnel were drafted and trained for combat. After the war was fought and won, statistics released from the draft revealed disturbing data regarding fitness levels. 1 out of every 3 drafted individuals was unfit for combat and many of those drafted were highly unfit prior to military training. In light of this report, government legislation was passed ordering the improvement of physical education programs within the public schools. However, the increased interest and concern for low fitness levels would be short-lived as the United States entered the 1920s and the Great Depression.
- The Roaring Twenties and Great Depression: Throughout the 1920s, spiked interest in fitness dissipated across the country. A familiar pattern that echoed throughout history after the declaration of the end of a war, that is, human society tended to relax, enjoy life, and exercise less. The Roaring Twenties was named as such because as American society during this period lived more frivolously than any other time in history. Americans’ priorities centred on eating, drinking, partying and other forms of entertainment. On October 1929, the stock market crashed, signalling the beginning of a decade-long economic depression. The economy struggled to recover lost ground until the United States entered World War II in 1941. Along with many other aspects of life, fitness levels also declined during the Great Depression. The gained achieved from physical education programs through the passage of legislation following WWI were short-lived. Funding for these programs was cut until it eventually exhausted as emphasis in the poor economy was forced to shift elsewhere. Despite these setbacks, Jack LaLanne began his lifetime career as a media fitness instructor. Throughout his life, he preached the value of preventative lifestyle habits. In the 1950s, The Jack LaLanne Show aired on television, which preceded the appearance of Richard Simmons and Jane Fonda by 25 years. LaLanne developed fitness programs including aerobics, water aerobics, and resistance exercise, as well as numerous pieces of exercise equipment including the first cable-pulley machine, the Smith machine (a safety system for performing squats), and the first leg extension machine. Although LaLanne is often referred to as the originator of the “jumping jack movement”, history suggests the real inventor was John “Black Jack” Pershing, who was a tactical officer from West Point in WWI. Though LaLanne preceded the modern fitness movement by about 30 years, his fitness ideology and exercise programs were supported by modern researchers, hence he was recognised as a guiding pioneer of fitness.
- World War II: Throughout world history, military conflicts have had major impacts on the state of fitness. WWII and its aftermath in the United States would be no different. Essentially, the evolution of modern fitness movement began due to the WWII outbreak and subsequent development of the Cold War. The United States joined the WWII battle with the bombing of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. The subsequent declaration of war sparked the necessity to draft military personnel. However, as more men were drafted, it became embarrassingly clear that many of them were unfit for combat. Upon the conclusion of WWII, it was reported that nearly 50% of all draftees were rejected or allocated non-combat positions. These disturbing statistics helped gain the attention of the country with regards to the importance of fitness. During the 1940s, important contributions to fitness came from Dr. Thomas K. Cureton at the University of Illinois. Cureton introduced the application of research to fitness, which lead to improved exercise recommendations to individuals. He not only recognised the numerous benefits of regular exercise, but he strived to expand the body of knowledge regarding physical fitness. His work helped answer questions such as “how much exercise was healthy?” and “what type of exercises were most effective?” Furthermore, he developed fitness tests for cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and flexibility to help measure the physical fitness of an individual. Cureton’s research lead to multiple recommendations regarding the improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness, including the identification of exercise intensity guidelines necessary for improved fitness levels. His proposals became the fundamental basis behind future exercise programs.
- 1950s - United States: This era included the Cold War and Baby Boomer generation, which marked the development of an important factor influencing the modern fitness movement known as the “Minimum Muscular Fitness Tests in Children” by Kraus-Hirschland. This study used the Kraus-Weber tests to measure muscular strength and flexibility in the trunk and leg muscles. It was reported that close to 60% of American children failed at least 1 of the fitness tests, whereas only 9% of European children failed at least one of the tests. During the Cold War, these startling numbers launched political leaders into action to promote health and fitness. When results of the Kraus-Hirshland studies were published and received by President Eisenhower, delivered by Senators James Kelly and James Duff, the president’s response was to hold a White House Conference in June 1956. The results of this conference was (1) the formation of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness and (2) the appointment of the President’s Citizens Advisory Committee on the Fitness of American Youth. These developments were an important starting point in gaining the nation’s attention concerning fitness levels. Throughout the 1950s, numerous organisations took initiative in educating the general public about the consequences of low fitness levels. Agencies involved in fitness promotion since the mid-1950s include the American Health Association (AHA), the American Association for Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAPHERD), and the President’s Council on Youth Fitness. These organisations provided merit and legitimacy to the advancing fitness movement. In 1954, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) was established and has proved to be one of the premier organisations in the promotion of health and fitness to American society and worldwide. Throughout its history, ACSM has established position stands on various exercise-related issues based on scientific research.
1960s - United States: During this decade, President John F. Kennedy was a major proponent of fitness and its health-related benefits to the American people. He furthered the development of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness by appointing Bud Wilkinson as head of the council. The company name also changed to the President’s Council on Physical Fitness. An article in Sports Illustrated entitled “The Soft American” written by Kennedy emphasised the need for American citizens to improve their fitness levels. In an interview, he stated that “Americans are under-exercised as a nation; they look instead of play; they ride instead of walk”. Kennedy prompted the federal government to increase its involvement in national fitness promotion and began youth pilot fitness programs. His commitment to fitness is best summarised by this quote of his: “Physical fitness is the basis for all other forms of excellence.” Famously known as “The Father of the Modern Fitness Movement”, Dr. Ken H. Cooper encouraged more individuals to exercise than any other individual in history. Cooper advocated a philosophy that shifted away from disease treatment to one of disease prevention. He claims that “it is easier to maintain good health through proper exercise, diet, and emotional balance than it is to regain it once it is lost.” Early in his career, Cooper stressed the necessity for providing epidemiological data of 1000s of individuals to support the benefits of regular exercise and health, which became the foundation for his aerobic concepts. Invented in 1968, aerobics conveyed a powerful message to American society: “To prevent the development of chronic diseases, exercise regularly and maintain high fitness levels throughout life”. His message, programs and ideas established the model from which fitness has proliferated up to modern time.
— Leading up to and during World War II, totalitarian regimes used gymnastics as a way to promote their ideologies. The Nazi philosophy revolved around physical fitness, which the German government financed by constructing of sports and wellness facilities. In 1922, the Nazi Party established the Hitler Youth, where children and adolescents participated in physical activities to develop both their physical and mental fitness. The purpose of this Nazi sports imagery was to share the myth of “Aryan” racial superiority. In 1933, an "Aryans only" policy was instituted in all German athletic organisations.
In the Soviet Union, the “Leninist Young Communist League” established the “Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR” in 1931. It was a fitness program aimed at improving public health and prepare the population for highly productive work and the defence of "the motherland”
— During the Cold War, both the United States and Soviet Union established a focus on physical fitness. At the time, Senator Hubert Humphrey made grave remarks that communist dominance originated from superior sports and fitness programs, which reflected the the growing American paranoia of communism. In response, leaders of the military, civilian government, and private sector began crafting a "cult and ritual of toughness”. President John F. Kennedy then issued a call to the nation urging Americans to prioritise their physical fitness across the country. It was clear that fitness was described as a "matter of achieving an optimum state of well-being" that required exercise from both young and old. This reinforced focus on fitness also opened the doors for female athletes in both the U.S. and the USSR to become more prominent as contenders in the Olympics.
— After World War II, a new form of non-organised, individualistic, health-oriented physical and recreational activities such as jogging prevailed. In The 1961 Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans was developed by Bill Orban, and the books “Aerobics” (1968) and mass market version “The New Aerobics” (1979) were written by United States Air Force Colonel Kenneth Cooper. These works helped launch America’s modern fitness culture and caused a running boom in the 1970s inspired by the Olympics. Aerobics was a form of group gymnastic activity performed accompanied by music that were popularised in the 1980s after the release of Jane Fonda’s exercise videos in 1982. Not long after, the commericialisation of fitness started to roll out across America. Gyms were constructed with the main goals to improve public health, as well as stimulate and exploit the desire of people to keep fit, have fun and improve themselves. In today’s gyms, you will notice bodybuilders aiming to achieve their aesthetic goals, through muscle development, using a variety of weights and gym equipment. The word “gym” often associated with the word “fitness” and attending the gym presumably meant performing exercises in fitness institutions such as fitness centres, health clubs or gym clubs. These institutions are where people paid for membership in order to use fitness equipment and participate in group fitness activities with instructors, such as aerobics and yoga classes.
— During the 21st century, there have been advances in technology that revolutionised the way humans perform fitness activities. A new phenomenon called “Quantified Self” allowed people utilise their technological devices to support their workouts. Such gadgets include a pedometer, GPS, heart rate monitor and smartphone apps quantify or monitor the exerciser’s efforts. However, there seem to be a decreased popularity of “pure aerobics” exercises. This suggests an attention shift from aerobics, bodybuilding and traditional technique of exercises, to new forms of exercises such as yoga, zumba, pilates, spinning and aquacycling, tai chi, kickboxing, and outdoor fitness. Nowadays, exercises have been commercialised as branded exercises by fitness institutions, which are group workouts for people with different fitness goals.
In the modern era, mass media helped shape fitness culture because it conveyed powerful messages of the ideal body image. Media such as TV, magazines and book publications, promote slimness or thinness as the ideal standards of female body image and slenderness or muscularity as the ideal male body image. Another influential and powerful force in commercial advertisements promoted a stereotype of ideal body image. Furthermore, advertisements on commodities such as watches, smartphones, and household appliances have promoted an idealised body image of women and men. This perception of slimness and thinness for women and slenderness and muscularity for men has become a stereotype in modern society. This created sociocultural pressures and and influenced people to engage in fitness in order to pursuit the ideal body image promoted by the mass media.
Humans in modern generations often view exercising and dieting as the superior method to achieve such ideal body images. For instance, fitness publications promote the idea that physical exercise provides the natural medicine for your body and overall health. On the other hand, fashion magazines promote slimness and thinness as the ideal female image in order to promote high fashion, therefore models are usually slim and thin. The rise in diet and weight loss articles magazines controversially influenced the shape of models towards a “more tubular female form” in high fashion culture.
Those who regularly attend fitness institutions tend to construct new friendships at these locations. They have this urge to discover their identity and a group they belong in, which is often described as “community feeling”. This behaviour of group membership is transmitted from member to member within a group. Nevertheless, this type of friendship is usually restricted within the fitness institution. Besides, the atmosphere inside these fitness institutions generated by frequent attendees who have identical fitness goals becomes a motivative force. Usually unfit people are persuaded to enter fitness institutions or begin a new activity by their close friends, who often provide support. Like dating agencies, fitness institutions provide lonely people opportunities to meet fresh faces outside their workplace. Music, body movement and costumes of people exercising, can easily draw attention and become an occasion to engage with each other.
Since the 1980s, fitness institutions have become a commercial environment where people cultivate their individual needs in terms of keeping fit and having fun with others. In general terms, a person (customer) must pay for their membership before they join their preferred fitness institution and make use of time exercising. Every fitness institution are constantly exploring the market by providing extra services such as personal trainers, fitness coaches and experts. Personal trainers act as representatives of the fitness club, which aim to maximise customer satisfaction and loyalty to that particular fitness institution. Trainers also act as brokers, or agents, to form a link between the activities of their customers and the purchase of extra goods and services that their customers need for particular activities such as shoes for specific training, clothing, or home equipment, which they motivate their customers to do so. They are required to attain technical skills in order to provide professional fitness services to their customers, as well as communication skills to persuade their customers to do more in the fitness institution. This, in turn, encourages more purchases of the fitness institution’s goods and services. Finally, they act as entrepreneurs by creating a large network of customers for different goods and services in order to produce profits. From this point of view, personal trainers are intermediaries between customers and the fitness institution, who play a crucial role in the commercialisation of fitness culture. The analysis of rule-governed behaviour in terms of evolutionary thinking explains how personal trainers act as speakers to give rules, while trainees are listeners to follow those rules. This accounts for the personal trainers’ popularity, hence the fitness institution. Much human behaviour starts out from rule-governed behaviour and switches to long-term control. Depending on the reinforcement by following the rule of personal trainers, trainers may or may not choose to continue their training, because being fit and bodily well-being is a long-term contingency of fitness activities. The role of personal trainers also revealed a phenomenon best explained from the sociological perspective of “outsourced-self”, which means “transferring your own responsibility to another”. Maintaining a healthy diet and wellbeing is usually the people’s own responsibility, however people are hiring personal trainers to take responsibility for their health and wellbeing. Relevant to the perspective of “body work” in the sociology of the body, it’s found that people are outsourcing their own bodies to the paid workers in order to keep healthy and prevent illness.
A product created by commercialisation of fitness culture is sport fashion, which is sold by personal trainers. e.g. Body Training System (BTS) are suggested to change their costume according to the programmes in order to demonstrate the character differences. This aims to aspire trainees in purchasing the same costume offered by the programmes. Sport wear and athletic footwear is the fastest growing segment in the apparel market. The trend in sport wear frames it not only for sport activities but also as casual daywear or weekend wear. While classic sport brands continue to expand their market share in the industry, high fashion brands have also joined the competition.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise
When people mention exercise, they refer to any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. People exercise to increase growth and development, prevent ageing, strengthen their muscles and cardiovascular system, hone athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, and improve health also for enjoyment. Many people choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialise, and enhance well-being. The word “exercise” comes from Middle English meaning “application of a right” via the Old French from Latin exercitium, from exercere ‘keep busy, practise’, from ex- ‘thoroughly’ + arcere ‘keep in or away’.
Physical exercises are classified into 3 groups, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:
— Aerobic Exercise = Any physical activity that recruits large muscle groups and causes the body to use more Oxygen than at rest. The main goal is increase cardiovascular endurance. Examples include running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, playing tennis, continuous training, and long slow distance training.
— Anaerobic Exercise = This physical activity includes strength and resistance training, which aims to firm, strengthen and tone muscles. Furthermore it improves bone strength, balance and coordination. Examples include push-ups, pull-ups, lunges and bicep curls using dumbbells. This activity also includes weight training, functional training, eccentric training, interval training, sprinting, and high-intensity interval training, which increase short-term muscle strength.
— Flexibility = These exercises stretch and lengthen muscles. Activities such as stretching help improve joint flexibility and keep the muscles limber. The goal is to improve the range of motion in order to reduce the risk of injury.
Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power and speed. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, lower diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can significantly increase systolic pressure, albeit transiently, during the performance of the exercise.
Physical exercise is regarded as essential for maintaining physical fitness, contributing to maintenance of a healthy weight, regulation of digestive health, construction and maintenance of healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promotion of physiological well-being, reduction of surgical risks, and strengthen the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life. They found that individuals who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. There are correlations between moderate levels of exercise and prevention of ageing by reducing inflammatory potential. A large proportion of benefits from exercise are achieved with about 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week. For instance, if you spend 10 minutes climbing up stairs, 15 minutes vacuuming, 20 minutes gardening, 20 minutes running, 25 minutes walking or cycling for transportation on a daily basis, this would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week. Studies note that a lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer worldwide. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.
Whenever humans perform sustained exercise, they have a high capacity to expend energy. For instance, if you were cycling at the Tour De France covering a total of 3500 km (2200 mi) at an average speed of 40 km/hr in stages over 21 consecutive days (totalling about 87.5 hours), you would expend 139.633 kcal (584.224 kJ) with an average power output of 185.4 W.
How much energy does the human body expend, on average?
On average, skeletal muscle burns about 90 mg (0.5 mmol) of Glucose for every minute of continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee). This generates roughly 24 W of mechanical energy, and muscle energy conversion is only 22–26% efficient, this evaluates to roughly 76 W of heat energy. At rest, skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate ((resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg), which is a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. If muscle exertion has a short duration, energy expenditure can be far greater. For instance, if an adult human male jumps upwards from a squatting position, they mechanically generate about 314 W/kg. Non-human animals such as bonobos and small lizards can generate twice this amount performing the identical movement.
Compared to the resting basal metabolic rate, this energy expenditure from the adult human body is quite substantial. Its rate varies with body size, gender and age but it typically ranges from 45 W to 85 W. Total Energy Expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is much higher, depending upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during a day. Thus exercise, particularly long sustained sessions, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. There are strong correlations between physical activity energy expenditure and gender, age, weight, heart rate, and VO2 max of an individual, during physical activity.
What are the human body’s energy sources?
(i) Rapid Energy Sources:
Meanwhile, fast glycolysis lasts for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular Glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen decomposes rapidly by Glycogen Phosphorylase into individual Glucose units during intense exercise via a process called glycogenolysis. These Glucose units are then oxidised to Pyruvate and, under anaerobic conditions, is then reduced to Lactic Acid. This reaction then oxidises NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a proton (H+), promoting acidosis. Therefore this process can not be sustained for long periods of time.
Lastly, Adenylate Kinase catalyses the combination reaction of 2 ADP to form ATP and AMP (Adenosine Monophosphate). This reaction occurs in low energy situations such as extreme exercise or conditions of hypoxia, but is not a significant source of energy. The formation of AMP then stimulates AMP-activated Protein Kinase (AMP Kinase), the energy sensor of the cell. After the cell senses low energy conditions, AMP kinase stimulates various other intracellular enzymes geared towards increasing energy supply and decreasing all anabolic, or energy requiring, cell functions.
Whenever there is an equal rate of Glucose appearance (entry into the blood) and Glucose disposal (removal from the blood), plasma glucose is maintained. Healthy individuals would display equal rates of Glucose appearance and disposal during moderate intensity and duration exercise. Nevertheless, prolonged exercise or sufficiently intense exercise would create an imbalance leaning towards a higher rate of Glucose disposal than appearance, at which point Glucose levels fall producing the onset of fatigue. The rate of Glucose appearance is determined by the amount of Glucose being absorbed at the gut as well as liver (hepatic) Glucose output. Although Glucose absorption from the gut is not typically a source of Glucose appearance during exercise, the liver is capable of catabolising stored Glycogen (Glycogenolysis) and synthesising new Glucose monomers from specific reduced carbon molecules (Glycerol, Pyruvate, and Lactate) in a process called Gluconeogenesis. The ability of the liver to release Glucose into the blood from Glycogenolysis is unique, since the other major Glycogen reservoir (i.e. skeletal muscle) is unable to do so. Unlike skeletal muscle, hepatic cells contain the enzyme Glycogen Phosphatase, which removes a Phosphate group from Glucose-6-P to release free Glucose. This would help Glucose efficiently exit a cell membrane. Although Gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone can’t sustain exercise. Therefore, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. On the other side of the equation, Glucose disposal is controlled by Glucose uptake at the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased Insulin concentrations, muscle increases GLUT4 translocation of and Glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research.
— Glucose Control: During exercise, Insulin secretion is reduced, but it doesn’t play a major role in maintaining normal blood glucose concentration, but the concentration os counter-regulatory hormones increase. The principle among these are Glucagon, Adrenaline and, Growth Hormone, which all stimulate liver (hepatic) glucose output, among other functions. e.g. Both Adrenaline and Growth Hormone also stimulate Adipocyte Lipase, increasing release of Non-Esterified Fatty Acid (NEFA). By oxidising fatty acids, this spares Glucose utilisation and helps to maintain blood sugar level during exercise.
— Exercise for Diabetes: Exercise plays an important role in Glucose control, particularly in those suffering from Diabetes Mellitus. Moderate exercise induces greater Glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma Glucose concentrations, which alleviates Hyperglycaemia (elevated blood Glucose). The mechanism for Glucose disposal is independent of Insulin, making it particularly crucial for Diabetics. Furthermore, the sensitivity to Insulin increases for approximately 12–24 hours post-exercise. This effect is important for Type II Diabetics and normal people who produce sufficient Insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to Insulin signalling. Nevertheless, in the case of extreme hyperglycaemic episodes, diabetics are encouraged to avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with Ketoacidosis. This is because exercise exacerbates ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA’s.
Research have found that Type II Diabetes is intricately linked to obesity, which implies a link between Type II Diabetes and the process of fat storage within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. This suggests that weight loss from both exercise and diet likely increases Insulin sensitivity in a majority of people. In some people, this effect is potent, which could result n normal glucose control. Although there is no cure for Diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications. Regaining that weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms, nonetheless.
(iii) Oxygen:
When you vigorously perform physical activities (such as exercise or hard labour), you increase your body’s demand for Oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in heart rate, breathing rate, and depth of breathing.
Oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise s best described by the Fick Equation: VO2 = Q x (a-vO2 diff). This equation states that the the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to the product of cardiac output (Q) and the difference (diff.) between arterial (a) and venous (v) oxygen concentrations. Generally speaking, Oxygen consumption is determined by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart and the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood, but this explanation oversimplifies this phenomenon. Although cardiac output is a limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. Other factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood are considered as determinants. Various pathologies and anomalies can cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. Moreover, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of exercise (ergogonic) aids used in in endurance sports to increase the volume percentage of red blood cells (hematocrit). Strategies include blood doping or using Erythropoietin (EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake relies on rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles. Within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fibre ratio influences oxygen extraction.
(iv) Dehydration:
This effect refers to both hypohydration and exercise-induced dehydration. Hypohydration is dehydration induced prior exercise, and exercise-induced dehydration is self-explanatory. The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance, which increases body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and reliance on Carbohydrates as a fuel source. Although scientists in the 1940s demonstrated negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was disadvantageous. Recent studies demonstrated the negative effects of modest (<2 -="" 0.83l="" 1.2l="" 10-fold="" 2.5="" 2="" 3-5="" 35="" 3="" 50="" 68="" 6="" 73="" 80="" a="" about="" absorption="" acid="" adp="" aerobic="" affect="" affecting="" aka="" also="" amino="" ammonia="" amounts="" and="" are="" arginine="" around="" as="" athlete="" awareness="" be="" because="" blood="" body="" brain="" but="" by="" c="" can="" cardiac="" catabolism="" catecholamine="" cause="" causes="" changes="" circulation="" comparison="" concentrations="" constantly="" cool="" cycle="" dangerously="" deamination="" degrees="" dehydration="" depending="" depletion="" dispenses="" diuretics="" drinking="" due="" during="" effect="" effects="" eliminated="" endurance="" energy="" environment.="" exacerbated="" example="" excessive="" exercise-associated="" exercise.="" exercise="" exposure="" females="" flow="" fluid="" fluids="" for="" from="" further="" glucose="" have="" heart="" heat="" heavy="" higher="" hot="" hour="" hours="" however="" hypohydration="" hyponatremia.="" i="" if="" il-6="" impact="" in="" include:="" inconsistent="" increase="" increased="" induced="" intake="" intense="" interleukin-6="" is="" it="" its="" largely="" leads="" less="" levels="" likewise="" lose="" loss="" losses="" lost="" low="" lower.="" lower="" male="" marathon="" mass="" metabolic="" minimal="" much="" muscle="" muscles.="" muscles="" myofibrils.="" nucleotide="" of="" on="" or="" other="" outputs="" per="" performance="" performing="" physiology.="" plasma="" prevented="" prior="" produces="" production="" profoundly="" prolonged="" proper="" purine="" rates="" reduce="" reduced="" reduces="" related="" release="" removed="" replacing="" require="" resistance.="" rise="" risk="" running="" s="" sauna="" secretion="" skeletal="" skin="" sodium="" strength="" stresses.="" stroke="" study.="" substantially="" suggesting="" sweat-based="" sweat.="" sweat="" swell.="" systemic="" taken="" temperature="" the="" their="" then="" thermoregulation.="" these="" this="" those="" through="" times="" to="" urine="" vary="" vascular="" vasopressin.="" volume.="" volume="" volumes="" warmer="" waste="" weather="" whether="" which="" whilst="" with:="" with="" working="" would="" you="" your:="">How does exercise affect the brain?
At rest, your brain receives 15% of the total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. It’s normally independent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. As a result, your brain is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within 6 - 7 seconds, with its EEG reading flattening out in 23 seconds. If oxygen and glucose supply to the brain is affected, the metabolic demands of exercise could therefore rapidly disrupt its functioning. Therefore, it’s crucial to protect your brain from any minor disruption since exercise depends upon motor control and humans’ bipedalism requires motor control to maintain balance. Indeed, this would increase brain energy consumption during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body.
(i) Cerebral Oxygen:
Cerebral autoregulation is a mechanism that prioritises the brain cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output usually increases and cerebral blood flow usually increases beyond the brain’s oxygen needs. Nevertheless, in the case of continuous maximal exertion, a 2008 study found that “maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise.” Autoregulation of the brain’s blood supply is impaired in warm environments, but reasons for this is still unknown.
(ii) Glucose:
When adult humans exercise, it depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain. A 2005 study found that short intense level exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) reduces brain glucose uptake by 32%. Resting adult humans’ brains would be energised by glucose, but it has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate. A 2003 study suggests that this can be elevated to about 17%, when a person rests in a brain scanner, with increases to 25% occurring during hypoglycemia. It’s estimated that 1/3 of a human brain’s energy needs is provided by Lactate during intense exercise. However, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, there is evidence to suggest that the brain might still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise.
(iii) Hyperthermia:
When humans exercise, the body removes the exercise-induced heat via sweat thermoregulation. This heat causes moderate dehydration and slight cognitive impairment, which can start after body mass losses greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise, is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow and and raise brain temperature.
Why does exercise cause fatigue?
A common misconception about fatigue is that it’s caused by a build-up of Lactic Acid. The truth is Lactate stops muscle fatigue by keeping the muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factors that determine exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise. Each muscle contraction involves an action potential activating voltage sensors, which releases Ca2+ ions from the muscle fibre’s Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. The action potentials require ion concentration changes within the nerve: Na+ (Sodium) ion influxes during the depolarisation phase and K+ (Potassium) effluxes during the repolarisation phase. Cl- (Chloride) ions also diffuse into the Sarcoplasm to aid the repolarisation phase. During intense muscle contraction, the ion pumps responsible for homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. Cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness ensues. Ca2+ (Calcium) leakage from type 1 Ryanodine Receptor channels has also been identified with fatigue.
After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:
— Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men’s marathon ran in the wrong direction and collapsed several times.
— Jim Peters had a 5-km (3-mi) lead in the marathon event of 1954 Commonwealth Games before he staggered and collapsed several times, ultimately failed to finish the race. The combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia caused his body failure.
— Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman’s marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics stopped occasionally and demonstrated signs of heat exhaustion in the race’s final 400 metres. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later.
Based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill, Tim Noakes proposed the existence of a “central governor”. It suggests the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. In response, the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units is adjusted, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. This idea rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (i.e. peripheral fatigue). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, particularly the heart, which is to be guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. This idea was questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting athletes can over-ride the ‘‘central governor’.
Other factors that lead to exercise fatigue include:
- Brain hyperthermia
- Depleted Glycogen stores in neurons
- Reactive Oxygen Species impairing skeletal muscle function
- Reduced levels of Glutamate secondary to uptake of Ammonia in the brain
- Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing
- Impaired Oxygen supply to muscles
- Ammonia effects upon the brain
- Serotonin pathways in the brain
Those who participate in prolonged exercise like marathons increase levels of cardiac biomarkers such as Troponin, B-type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP), and Ischemia-modified (MI) Albumin. This is often misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial infarction, or cardiac dysfunction. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours. However, further detailed research is required.
Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running in marathons). This capacity for endurance running evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours. Compared to the animals they hunt, the human body removes muscle heat waste more effectively. Most animals store this muscle heat waste by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from predators that rapidly sprint after them for a short duration. Unlike other animals that catch prey, humans removes bodily heat through specialised thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. Every gram of sweat removed from the body releases about 2.598 kJ of heat. Another mechanism is vasodilation in the skin during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin-based cooling in humans increases the number of sweat glands being acquired, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid fatigue from heat exhaustion affecting animals being chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.
In several different studies, rodent were bred for high or low performance on a motorised treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. High-performance rats exhibited increased voluntary wheel-running behaviour compared to low-performance rats. In a 1998 experimental evolution approach, 4 replicate lines of laboratory mice were bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while 4 additional control lines were maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also demonstrated increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorised treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.
A 2008 study suggests that physical exercise causes immediate pain due to stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH and delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness fundamentally is caused by ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibres. Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.
A large body of research in humans investigated the neurobiological effects of physical exercise on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. They demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g. at least 30 minutes daily) induces persistent improvements in certain cognitive functions, healthy alterations in gene expression in the brain, and beneficial forms of neuroplasticity and behavioural plasticity. Long-term effects include:
- Increased neuronal growth
- Increased neurological activity (e.g. c-Fos and BDNF signalling)
- Improved stress coping
- Enhanced cognitive control of behaviour
- Improved declarative, spatial, and working memory
- Structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory.
- The cognitive effects of exercise include:
- Improving academic performance in children and university / college students
- Improving adult productivity
- Preserving cognitive function in old age
- Preventing or treating certain neurological diseases
- Improving overall quality of life.
Neuroplasticity is a neurological process where neurons adapt to a disturbance over time in response to repeated exposure to stimuli. Aerobic exercise is shown to increase the production of neurotrophic factors such as BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF. They mediate improvements in cognitive functions and various forms of memory by promoting formation of new blood vessels in the brain, adult neurogenesis, and other forms of neuroplasticity. Consistent aerobic exercise over a period of several months induces clinically significant improvements in executive functions and increased grey matter volume in nearly all regions of the brain. The most prominent increases occur in brain regions giving rise to executive functions. Those brain regions include the Prefrontal Cortex, Caudate Nucleus and Hippocampus, and to a lesser extent, the Anterior Cingulate Cortex, Parietal Cortex, Cerebellum, and Nucleus Accumbens. The Prefrontal Cortex, Caudate Nucleus and Anterior Cingulate Cortex are among the most significant brain structures in the Dopamine and Noradrenaline systems that are responsible for cognitive control. Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the Hippocampus correlates with measurable improvements in spatial memory. Neurogenesis refers to increases in grey matter volume. Higher physical fitness scores are evaluated according to VO2 max, which correlate to enhanced executive function, swifter transmission of information processing, and increased grey matter volume of the Hippocampus, Caudate Nucleus, and Nucleus Accumbens. Long-term aerobic exercise also correlate with persistent beneficial epigenetic changes that improve stress coping and cognitive function, and increase neuronal activity (e.g. c-Fos and BDNF signalling).
— BDNF (Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor) = Long-term exercise increases the synthesis and expression of this neuropeptide hormone in the brain and periphery. This results in increased signalling through its Receptor Tyrosine Kinase, Tropomyosin Receptor Kinase B (TrkB). Since BDNF is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, higher peripheral BDNF synthesis also increases BDNF signalling in the brain. These effects induced by exercise correlate with beneficial epigenetic changes, improved cognitive function, improved mood, and improved memory. Furthermore, research has found evidence supporting the role of BDNF in neurogenesis in Hippocampus, synaptic plasticity, and neural repair. Performing moderate-high intensity aerobic exercise such as running, swimming, and cycling increases BDNF biosynthesis through Myokine signalling. This results in a 3-fold increase in blood plasma and brain BNDF levels. Moreover, exercise intensity positively corresponds with the magnitude of increased BDNF biosynthesis and expression. A 2014 meta-analysis of studies involving the effect of exercise on BDNF levels uncovered evidence that consistent exercise modestly increases resting BDNF levels as well.
— IGF-1 (Insulin-like Growth Factor 1) = This peptide and neurotrophic factor mediates some of the effects of the Growth Hormone. It elicits its physiological effects by binding to a specific Receptor Tyrosine Kinase called the IGF-1 Receptor, which then controls tissue growth and remodelling. Like BDNF, IGF-1 functions as a neurotrophic factor in the brain, which plays a critical role in cognition, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival. Physical activity increases IGF-1 levels in blood serum, which then contributes to neuroplasticity in the brain due to its capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier. One review stated that IGF-1 mediates exercise-induced adult neurogenesis, while another review characterised it as a factor that connects “body fitness” with “brain fitness”. There a direct proportional relationship between exercise intensity and duration and the amount of IGF-1 released into the blood plasma during exercise.
— VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) = This neurotrophic and angiogenic (blood vessel growth-promoting) signalling protein binds to 2 Receptor Tyrosine Kinases. Those Receptor Tyrosine Kinases are VEGFR1 and VEGFR2, which are expressed in neurons and glial cells in the brain. Hypoxia, or extremely low cellular Oxygen supply, strongly upregulates VEGF expression, which then exerts a neuroprotective effect in hypoxic neurons. Like BDNF-1 and IGF-1, aerobic exercise is demonstrated to increase VEGF biosynthesis in peripheral tissue, which subsequently crosses the blood–brain barrier and promotes neurogenesis and blood vessel formation in the Central Nervous System. This subsequently improves cerebral blood volume and contribute to exercise-induced neurogenesis in the Hippocampus.
- Attentional control
- Inhibitory control
- Cognitive flexibility
- Working memory updating and capacity
- Declarative memory
- Spatial memory
- Informational processing speed
The transient effects of exercise on cognition include improvement improvements in most executive functions and information processing speed for a period of up to 2 hours after exercising. Executive functions include attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision making.
Studies have found that regular exercise counters the neurodegeneration of the Hippocampus and memory impairment that naturally occurs in late adulthood. Sedentary adults over the age of 55 display an annual decline of 1-2% in grey matter volume in their Hippocampus. Neuroimaging studies in 2011 and 2012 unveiled the finding that participation in regular aerobic exercise increased the volume of the left hippocampus by 2.12% and the right hippocampus by 1.97% over a one-year period. Subjects in the low intensity stretching group who had higher fitness levels at baseline had minimal grey matter volume loss in the Hippocampus. This implies that exercise protects against age-related cognitive decline. Generally, individuals that spend more time exercising possess higher grey matter volumes in their Hippocampus and improved memory function. Moreover, aerobic exercise induces growth in white matter tracts in the Anterior Corpus Callosum, which normally shrink with age. It’s evident that exercise elicits increases in grey matter volumes in various brain structures including:
— Prefrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortices: These brain regions play essential roles in cognitive control of behaviour, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control behaviour. This is implicated in ADHD and addiction.
— Nucleus Accumbens: This brain region plays an important role in incentive salience and positive reinforcement. In other words, it is a form of motivation associated with reward that push us to “want” or desire a certain stimulus. This is implicated in addiction.
— Hippocampus: This brain region plays an important role in storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory. This is implicated in depression.
— Cerebellum: This brain region plays key roles in motor coordination and motor learning.
— Caudate Nucleus: This brain region plays essential roles in stimulus-response learning and inhibitory control. This is implicated in Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Disease and ADHD.
— Parietal Cortex: This brain region plays key roles in sensory perception, working memory and attention.
Aerobic exercise also induces both short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states. Those effects include promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. In the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem.
Regular aerobic exercise also improves symptoms associated with a variety of Central Nervous System disorders, thus it may be used as an adjunct therapy to these disorders. Many studies have uncovered evidence of exercise being an efficacious treatment for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). According to the American Academy of Neurology’s clinical practice guideline for mild cognitive impairment, it advises clinicians to recommend regular exercise (at least twice a week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. Reviews of clinical evidence have also supported the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for certain neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease as well as brain cancer, because there is evidence that it lowers its risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders. There is a large body of preclinical evidence and emerging clinical evidence supporting the use of exercise therapy for treating and preventing the development of drug addictions.
(i) Long Term Effects
— The long-term cognitive effects of regular, frequent and long-duration exercise include persistent improvement in numerous executive functions and several forms of memory. This is concordant with the functional roles of the brain structures that exhibit increased grey matter volumes. Those who consistently engage in aerobic exercise demonstrate improved attentional control, informational
processing speed, cognitive flexibility (e.g. task switching), inhibitory control, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, and spatial memory. In healthy young and middle-aged adults, the effect sizes of improvements in cognitive function are largest for indices of executive functions and small to moderate for aspects of memory and information processing speed. Whereas in older adults, they yield cognitive benefits participating in both aerobic and resistance type exercise of at least moderate intensity. Individuals living a sedentary lifestyle tend to have impaired executive functions compared to non-exercisers who are more physically active. There is a reciprocal relationship between exercise and executive functions, which includes improvements in executive control processes, such as attentional control and inhibitory control, and increasing an individual's tendency to exercise.
(ii) Short Term Effects
— Recent studies have shown that acute exercise also elicits short-term cognitive effects that transiently improve a number of cognitive functions. Reviews and meta-analyses of research on the effects of acute exercise in healthy young and middle-aged adults on cognition have concluded that information processing speed and a number of executive functions. These executive functions include attention, working memory, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, decision making, and inhibitory control, which all improve for a period of up to 2 hours post-exercise. A systematic review of studies conducted on children in 2014 also implicated some of exercise-induced improvements in executive function are apparent after single bouts of exercise, while other aspects (e.g., attentional control) only improve following consistent exercise on a regular basis. Other recent research has suggested performative enhancements during exercise, such as exercise-concurrent improvements in processing speed during visual working memory tasks.
When one continuously exercise, they can experience short-term euphoria, which is an affective state associated with feelings of profound contentment, elation, and well-being. Euphoria is colloquially known as a "runner's high" in distance running or a “rower’s high” in rowing. Current medical reviews explain the responsibility of several endogenous euphoriants to produce exercise-related euphoria, specifically Phenethylamine (an endogenous psychostimulant), β-Endorphin (an endogenous opioid), and Anandamide (an endocannabinoid).
— β-Phenylethylamine = Commonly known as Phenylethylamine, this human trace amine and potent catecholaminergic and glutamatergic neuromodulator evokes a similar psychostimulant effect and chemical structure to Amphetamine. If a person exercises at moderate to high intensities for 30 minutes, they will experience increases in levels of urinary β-Phenylacetic Acid, a primary metabolite of Phenethylamine. 2 reviews mentioned a 2001 study where the average 24 hour urinary β-phenylacetic acid acid concentration among participants following just 30 minutes of intense exercise increased by 77% relative to baseline concentrations in resting control subjects. They suggest that Phenethylamine synthesis sharply increases while an individual is exercising, during which time it is rapidly metabolised due to its short half-life of roughly 30 seconds. When a person is resting, Phenethylamine is synthesised in Catecholamine neurons from L-Phenylalanine by an aromatic Amino Acid Decarboxylase at approximately the same rate of Dopamine production. This lead to the conclusion that Phenethylamine is responsible for mediating the mood-enhancing euphoric effects of a runner's high, as both Phenethylamine and Amphetamine are potent euphoriants.
— β-Endorphin = Abbreviated form of “endogenous Morphine”, this endogenous opioid neuropeptide binds to μ-Opioid Receptors to produce euphoria and pain relief. A 2011 meta-analytic review discovered that exercise significantly increases the secretion of β-endorphin, which correlates with improved mood states. Moderate intensity exercise produces the greatest increase in β-endorphin synthesis, while higher and lower intensity forms of exercise could only induce smaller increases in β-endorphin synthesis. The same review on β-endorphin and exercise indicated that an individual's mood improves for the remainder of the day following physical exercise and their mood positively correlates with overall daily physical activity level.
— Anandamide = This endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter binds to Cannabinoid Receptors. A 2014 study concluded that aerobic exercise increases plasma anandamide levels, with the magnitude of this increase peaking at moderate exercise intensity ( i.e., exercising at ~70–80% maximum heart rate). This induces psychoactive effects because Anandamide can cross the blood-brain barrier and act within the Central Nervous System. Anandamide’s euphoric effects led to a proposal regarding its role in mediating the short-term mood-lifting effects of exercise (e.g., the euphoria of a runner's high) via exercise-induced increases in its synthesis. In a 2015 mice study, it demonstrated certain features of a runner’s high depending on the concentration of Cannabinoid Receptors. Pharmacological or genetic disruption of cannabinoid signalling via cannabinoid receptors prevented the analgesic and anxiety-reducing effects of running.
— Monoamine neurotransmitters
— Glutamate and GABA = Glutamate is one of the most common neurochemicals in the brain, which acts as an an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in many aspects of brain function, including learning and memory. Based upon animal models, exercise appears to normalise the excessive levels of Glutamate neurotransmission into the Nucleus Accumbens that occurs in drug addiction. A 2015 review of the effects of exercise on neurocardiac function in preclinical models indicated that exercise-induced neuroplasticity of the Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla (RVLM) elicited an inhibitory effect on glutamatergic neurotransmission in this region, in turn reducing sympathetic activity. Furthermore, the review hypothesised that this RVLM neuroplasticity is a mechanism by which regular exercise prevents inactivity-related cardiovascular disease.
— Acetylcholine
A 2003 study conducted by Sibley and Etnier performed a meta-analysis investigating the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance in children. They found a beneficial relationship in the categories of perceptual skills, intelligence quotient, achievement, verbal tests, mathematic tests, developmental level/academic readiness and other, except memory, that was found to be unrelated to physical activity. This relationship was prominent in children aged 4–7 and 11–13 years.
Meanwhile, a 2011 study conducted by Chaddock and colleagues found evidence that contradicted Sibley and Etnier’s study. Their study hypothesised lower-fit children would perform poorly in executive control of memory and have smaller hippocampal volumes compared to higher-fit children. Instead of physical activity being unrelated to memory in children aged between 4 and 18 years, it may be that preadolescents of higher fitness have larger grey matter volumes of Hippocampus than preadolescents of lower fitness. Chaddock et al. 2010 study demonstrated that improved executive control of memory can be achieved with a larger volume in the Hippocampus. Therefore, they concluded that volume of the Hippocampus positively correlated with performance on relational memory tasks. Their findings were the first to indicate the relationship between aerobic fitness and the structure and function of the preadolescent human brain.
In 2010, Best’s meta-analysis of the effect of activity on children’s executive function utilised 2 distinct experimental designs to assess the effects of aerobic exercise on cognition. The first experimental design concerned chronic exercise, in which children were randomly assigned to a schedule of aerobic exercise over several weeks and later assessed at the end. The second experimental design concerned acute exercise, which examined the immediate changes in cognitive functioning after each session. The results of both experiments indicated that aerobic exercise briefly assisted children’s executive function, which positively impacted on their executive functions. A 2008 study conducted by Hillman, Erickson and Cramer argued hat exercise is unrelated to academic performance, perhaps due to the parameters used to determine exactly what academic achievement is.
It’s apparent this area of study has been a focus for education boards around the world that decide whether physical education should be compulsorily implemented in the school curriculum, how much time should be dedicated to physical education, and its impact on other academic subjects.
A 2006 study found evidence of 6th-graders who participated in vigorous physical activity at least three times a week achieved the highest scores compared to those who participated in moderate or no physical activity at all. Moreover, students who participated in vigorous physical activity scored a mean 3 points higher in mathematics, science, English, and world studies.
A 2008 animal study demonstrated the impact of exercise on brain development early in life. When mice had access to running wheels and other such exercise equipment, the neural systems responsible for learning and memory experienced significant neuronal growth. Neuroimaging of the human brain yielded similar results, suggesting exercise plays a role in changes in brain structure and function. A 2011 investigative study implicated low levels of aerobic fitness in children with impaired executive function in older adults, but there is mounting evidence it may also be associated with a lack of selective attention, response inhibition, and interference control.
What are the effects of exercise on disorders of the central nervous system?
(i) Addiction: Recent studies have uncovered clinical and preclinical evidence that indicate the impact consistent aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g. marathon running), has on preventing the development of certain drug addictions. Aerobic exercise has been regarded as an effective adjunct treatment for drug addiction, and in particular, psychostimulant addiction. They found that consistent aerobic exercise magnitude-dependently (i.e., by duration and intensity) decreases the risk of drug addiction, which may occur through the reversal of drug-induced, addiction-related neuroplasticity. A 2015 review suggested that exercise may prevent the development of drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or cFos immunoreactivity in the Striatum or other regions of the reward system. Furthermore, aerobic exercise seemed to decrease psychostimulant self-administration and reinstatement (relapse) of drug system, as well as induce antagonist effects on Striatal Dopamine Receptor D2 (DRD2) signalling (increased DRD2 density) to those induced by pathological stimulant use (decreased DRD2 density). Therefore, consistent aerobic exercise may lead to effective treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction. As of 2016, more clinical research is required to fully understand the mechanisms and confirm the efficacy of exercise in drug addiction treatment and prevention. Below is a summary of addiction-related plasticity according to the December 2011 study conducted by Olsen CM “Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions”:
(ii) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recent studies have determined that regular physical and/or aerobic exercise combined with stimulant medication like Amphetamine or Methylphenidate is an effective add-on treatment for adults and children diagnosed with ADHD. However, the recommended intensity and type of aerobic exercise that yields the most improvement in symptoms are currently unknown. Nevertheless, the long-term effects include improved behaviour and motor abilities, improved executive functions (including attention, inhibitory control, and planning, among other cognitive domains), higher information processing speed, and improved memory. Parent-teacher ratings of behavioural and socio-emotional outcomes include:
— Improved overall function
— Reduced ADHD symptoms
— Improved self-esteem
— Reduced levels of anxiety and depression
— Fewer somatic complaints
— Improved academic and classroom behaviour
— Improved social behaviour
It’s evident that exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function. There are suggestions that these short-term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of synaptic Dopamine and Noradrenaline in the brain.
(iii) Major Depressive Disorder: Several recent medial reviews have indicated that exercise acts as a marked and persistent antidepressant in humans, which is believed to be mediated through enhanced BDNF signalling in the brain. A number of systematic reviews analysed the potential for physical exercise in the treatment of depressive disorders. The 2013 Cochrane Collaboration review on physical exercise indicated that, based upon limited evidence, it is more effective than a control intervention and comparable to psychological or antidepressant drug therapies. 3 subsequent 2014 systematic reviews that included the Cochrane review in their analysis concluded with similar findings. A review by Mura et al. implicated the effectiveness of physical exercise as an adjunct treatment (i.e., treatments that are used together) with antidepressant medication. The other 2 reviews by Josefsson et al. and Rosenbaum et al. highlighted the effectiveness of physical exercise as an antidepressant and recommended the inclusion of physical activity as an adjunct treatment for mild–moderate depression and mental illness in general. A 2015 systematic review by Gong et al. suggested that yoga may be an effective alternative in alleviating symptoms of prenatal depression. A 2013 review by Gomez-Pinilla and Hillman asserted that evidence from clinical trials supports the efficacy of physical exercise as a treatment for depression over a 2–4 month period.
A 2015 Ganjbar et al. review of clinical evidence included a medical guideline for the treatment of depression with exercise. It noted that the available evidence on the effectiveness of exercise therapy for depression suffers from some limitations. Nonetheless, it acknowledged the clear evidence available regarding the efficacy for reducing symptoms of depression. Furthermore, it mentioned that patient characteristics, the type of depressive disorder, and the nature of the exercise program all affect the antidepressant properties of exercise therapy to an extent. A July 2016 meta-analysis concluded that physical exercise improves overall quality of life in individuals with depression relative to controls.
(iv) Brain cancers: In April 2015, the Frontiers of Oncology investigated the potential role of exercise in neuro-oncology. Their data suggests exercise may be an effective intervention aiding the management of neuro-onocological disorders like brain cancer. Although there are promising signs that physical exercise can enhance physical and psychosocial wellbeing of patients diagnosed with neurologic malignancies, each patient has unique needs. Therefore, extensive research is urgently required to explore optimal exercise prescriptions specific to these patients in order to maximise safety and efficacy.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4389372/#S4title
(v) Mild Cognitive Impairment: In January 2018, the American Academy of Neurology updated their clinical practice guideline for mild cognitive impairment. It now states that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (at least 2 times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. This guidance is based upon a moderate amount of high-quality evidence supporting the efficacy of regular physical exercise (twice weekly over a 6-month period) for improving cognitive symptoms in individuals with mild cognitive impairment.
(vi) Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): This cortical neurodegenerative disease is the most prevalent form of dementia, as it represents about 65% of all dementia cases. It is characterised by impaired cognitive function, behavioural abnormalities, and a reduced capacity to perform basic activities of daily life. A pair of 2014 meta-analytic systematic reviews of randomised controlled trials with durations of 3–12 months examined the effects of physical exercise on the aforementioned characteristics of Alzheimer's disease. They found beneficial effects of physical exercise on cognitive function, the rate of cognitive decline, and the ability to perform activities of daily living in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. A 2005 review suggested that, based upon transgenic mouse models, the cognitive effects of exercise on Alzheimer's disease may result from a reduction in the quantity of Amyloid plaques.
A December 2013 Caerphilly Prospective study followed 2,375 male subjects over 30 years and examined the association between healthy lifestyles and dementia, among other factors. Their analyses of the data have uncovered evidence of exercise correlating with a lower incidence of dementia and a reduction in cognitive impairment. Subsequently, a 2014 systematic review of longitudinal studies also discovered evidence that higher levels of physical activity correlate with a reduction in the risk of dementia and cognitive decline. It further asserted that increased physical activity appears to be causally related with these reduced risks.
(vii) Parkinson’s Disease (PD): This neurodegenerative disease is a movement disorder that produces symptoms such as bradykinesia, rigidity, shaking and impaired gait. A 2006 review by Kramer and co. discovered that some neurotransmitter systems are affected by exercise in a positive way. A few students reported that exercise improved brain health and cognitive function. A 1999 study by Kramer and co. found evidence that aerobic training improved executive control processes supported by frontal and prefrontal regions of the brain. These regions are responsible for the cognitive deficits in PD patients, however there was speculation that the difference in the neurochemical environment inside the frontal lobes of PD patients may inhibit the benefit of aerobic exercise. Based on the current literature, a 2010 case study by Nocera and co. gave participants with early-to mid-staged PD, and the control group cognitive/language assessments with exercise regimens. Individuals in the exercise groups performed 20 minutes of aerobic exercise thrice a week for 8 weeks on a stationary exercise cycle. The results showed that aerobic exercise improved several measures of cognitive function, which provided evidence that such exercise regimens may be beneficial to patients with PD.
I’ll delve deeper into the neuropathology of all brain diseases, disorders and syndromes, as the causes are currently unknown, in another post.
How does exercise affect:
— The immune system?
Despite numerous studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise elicits a beneficial effect on the human immune system, modelled in a J. Curve. Moderate exercise is implicated to reduce incidence of upper respiratory tract infections by 29%, but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise increased their risk of infection occurrence, which was contradicted by other studies. It’s known that immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, increasing the risk of infections. A 2002 study has shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes. The immune systems of athletes and non-athletes are generally similar, with athletes having slightly elevated NK Cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant. An August 2007 study implicated that Vitamin C supplementation lowered the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections in marathon runners. Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reaction protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals. This suggests exercise elicits positive, anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, which is an important cardiovascular risk marker. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.
— Cancer?
A 2012 systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. It found consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer–specific, and colon cancer–specific mortality. However, there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers. Despite this setback, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise nonetheless, but due to various factors, this recommendation can be performed to a certain extent. Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often suffer from high drop-out rates.
— Sleep?
Preliminary evidence from a 2012 review indicated that physical training for up to four months may increase sleep quality in adults over 40 years of age. A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved sleep for most people, alleviating insomnia, but found insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that exercise can improve sleep quality in people with insomnia.
What happens if you exercise too much?
Overexercising can cause more harm than desired. Without proper rest, the risk of stroke or other circulation problems increases, and muscle tissue development slows down. Athletes training for multiple marathons perform extremely intense, long-term cardiovascular exercise. This scars their hearts and cause heart rhythm abnormalities. Specifically, a high cardiac output enlarges the left and right ventricle volumes, increases ventricle wall thickness and cardiac mass. These changes can cause myocardial cell damage in the lining of the heart, leading to scar tissue and thickened walls. During these processes, the concentration of protein Troponin increases in the bloodstream, indicating cardiac muscle cell death and increased stress on the heart itself. For many exercises, especially running and cycling, significant injuries can occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. Injuries from accidents also remain a major concern, whereas the effects of increased exposure to air pollution seem only a minor concern. In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle), which is most seen in new army recruits. Overtraining is another dangerous activity where the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts. One outcome of detrimental overtraining is suppressed immune function, with an increased incidence of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). A 2003 study found evidence of high volume/intensity training, as well as with excessive exercise (EE), such as in a marathon, increased the incidence of URTIs. Marathon training requires the runner to build their intensity week to week, increasing their susceptibility to injury the more they increase their mileage. A 2007 study demonstrated that in the last 10–15 years up to 90% of marathon runners have suffered a physical injury from their training. Halting overexercise regime may instantly generate drastic mood changes. It’s recommended to control exercise according to each of your body's inherent limitations, which must be determined. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. Too much exercise may cause a woman to cease menstruation, a symptom known as amenorrhea.
How does exercise affect muscle biology?
Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes muscle hypertrophy and gains in muscle strength by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB). MPS stimulation by resistance training occurs via phosphorylation of the ‘mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) and subsequent activation of mTORC1. This leads to protein biosynthesis in cellular ribosomes via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets, which are p70S6 Kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1. Suppression of MPB following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in plasma Insulin. Similarly, increased MPS (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed MPB (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of β-Hydroxy β-Methylbutyric Acid.
Recent studies have shown that aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and increases capacity for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of skeletal muscle, which enhances submaximal endurance performance. These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular AMP:ATP ratio, thereby triggering the activation of AMP-activated Protein Kinase (AMPK). This subsequently phosphorylates Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor-γ Coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), which is the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis.
— PLD = Phospholipase D, PA = Phosphatidic Acid, mTOR = mechanistic Target of Rapamycin, AMP = Adenosine Monophosphate, ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate, PGC-1α = Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor γ Coactivator-1α, S6K1 = p70S6 Kinase, 4EBP1 = eukaryotic translation initiation 4E-binding protein 1, eIF4E = eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E, RPS6 = ribosomal protein S6, eEF2 = eukaryotic elongation factor 2, RE = resistance exercise, EE = endurance exercise, Myo = Myofibrillar, Mito = Mitochondrial, AA = Amino Acids, HMB = β-Hydroxy β-Methylbutyric Acid, ↑ = activation, Τ = inhibition
Ongoing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. When muscles contract, they release multiple substances known as myokines that promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. A 1991 study showed that exercise reduces levels of cortisol, which is responsible for many physical and mental health problems. A 2009 study showed that endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the identical exercise after meals. There is growing evidence that vigorous exercise (90-95% of VO2 max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40-70% of VO2 max), but it’s uncertain whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the ventricular walls) is is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.
What are the public health measures?
Many people use component community-wide campaigns in order to increase a population's level of physical activity. Nevertheless, a 2015 Cochrane review failed to find evidence supporting any benefit of such campaigns. However, this is evidence that school-based interventions can increase activity levels and fitness in children. A 2011 Cochrane review found some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance in older adults. A 2009 Cochrane review implicated that older adults also respond with improved physical function following progressive resistance training. A 2016 survey of brief interventions promoting physical activity found that they are cost-effective, despite the variations between studies. A 2002 study have found promising results from environmental approaches e.g. Signs encouraging the use of stairs, community campaigns may increase exercise levels. For instance, the city of Bogotá, Colombia blocks off 113 km (70 mi) of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. Such pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy BMI. A 2014 study concluded that physical exercise decreased healthcare costs, increased both the rate of job attendance and the amount of effort women put into their jobs. However, a 2018 study expressed concern about additional exposure to air pollution when exercising outdoors, especially near traffic. A 2015 study found that children tend to mimic their parent’s behaviour with respect to physical exercise. Therefore, parents are urged to promote physical activity and limit the amount of time children spend in front of screens. Overweight children who participate in physical exercise greatly lose body fat and increase their cardiovascular fitness. The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States recommended children and adolescents to exercise for at least 60 minutes every day. It’s important to implement physical exercise in the school system and ensure an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle. The European Commission’s Directorate General for Education and Culture (DG EAC) has dedicated programs and funds for Health Enhancing Physical Activity projects within its Horizon 2020 and Erasmus+ program. This announcement was made after research discovered that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a Eurobarometer on sport and physical activity.
Proper nutrition is just as essential to health as exercise. During exercise, a balanced diet is crucial to ensure that your body has the correct ratio of macronutrients while providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise. I’ll cover nutrition in another post. A 2005 study recommended active recovery after participating in physical exercise, as it helps remove lactate from circulation more quickly than inactive recovery. This allows an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system. During this period, any exerciser may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.
The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity, dating back to 65 BC. During this era, a Roman politician and lawyer named Marcos Cicero stated that exercise solely supports the spirits, and invigorates the mind. Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the Middle Ages, because it helped Germanic people of Northern Europe survive.
In the 19th century, exercise has been regarded as a beneficial force. After 1860, Archibald MacLaren opened a gymnasium at the University of Oxford and instituted a training regimen for 12 military officials at the university, which was later assimilated into the training of the British Army. In the early 20th century, several mass exercise movements were established, with the first and most significant of these in the UK called the Women’s League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by Mary Bagot Stack, with 166,000 members in 1937. In 1949, the link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was further established, which wasn’t reported until 1953 by a team led by Dr. Jerry Morris. He implied that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got. He discovered that bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.
Does exercise benefit other animals?
A 2016 study of animals indicated that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate energy balance. A 2015 study that granted mice access to activity wheels discovered increased engagement in voluntary exercise and propensity to run as adults. Artificial selection of mice exhibited significant heritability in voluntary exercise levels, with “high-runner” breeds possessing enhanced aerobic capacity, hippocampal neurogenesis and skeletal muscle morphology. The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. For instance, recent studies found that exercise training of salmon showed minor improvements of endurance, and a forced swimming regimen of yellowtail amberjack and rainbow trout accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favourable for sustained swimming. Other studies on crocodiles, alligators and ducks found their aerobic capacity increased following exercise training. However, according to most studies of lizards, endurance training didn’t provide them any benefits, although one 2015 study did report a training effect. The sprint training regime on lizards didn’t change their maximal exercise capacity, and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness
Individuals increase their fitness following increases in physical activity levels. Resistance training increases their muscle size according to their diet and testosterone levels. This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population. Studies have highlighted that exercising in middle age leads to improved physical ability later in life. There seems to be a relationship between early motor skills and development, and physical activity and performance later in life. Children with more proficient motor skills early on are more inclined to being physically active, and therefore perform excellently in sports and exhibit greater fitness levels. There’s a positive correlation between early motor proficiency and childhood physical activity and fitness levels. However deficiency in motor skills results in a tendency towards a sedentary lifestyle.
What is physical fitness?
Physical fitness is a state of health and wellbeing, as well as the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Achieving adequate physical fitness requires proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and sufficient rest. Before the Industrial Revolution, fitness was defined as ‘the capacity to to carry out the day’s activities without undue fatigue’. Nevertheless, the rise of automation revolutionised human lifestyles. Now physical fitness is considered as an accurate measure of the body's ability to function efficiently and effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypokinetic diseases, and to meet emergency situations.
Around 1950, consistent with the Industrial Revolution and the treatise of World War II, the term “fitness” increased in western vernacular ten-fold. In modern dictionaries, “fitness” describes a person’s or machine’s ability to perform a specific function or a holistic definition of human adaptability to cope with various situations. This led to the interrelation of human fitness and attractiveness that mobilised global fitness and fitness equipment industries. In regards to specific function, fitness is attributed to people who possess significant aerobic or anaerobic ability i.e. endurance or strength. A well-rounded fitness program aims to improve a person in all fitness aspects compared to practicing only 1, such as only cardio/respiratory endurance or only weight training. A comprehensive fitness program tailored to an individual typically focuses on one or more specific skills, and on age-, or health-related needs such as bone health. The 2015 Australian Bureau of Statistics report cite mental, social and emotional health as an important part of overall fitness. Physical fitness is shown to prevent or treat many chronic health conditions brought on by unhealthy lifestyles or ageing. A 2013 study concludes that working out improves people’s sleep patterns and possibly alleviate some mood disorders. Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. As muscles contract, they release multiple substances known as myokines, that promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.
The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Prevention published their Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans in 2008. It recommends all adults avoid inactivity in order to promote both mental and and physical health. Substantial health benefits can be achieved with at least 150 minutes per week participation of moderate-intensity, or 75 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity. This aerobic activity needs to be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, and preferably spread the episodes throughout the week. If you seek additional and more extensive health benefits, you should increase your aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes (5 hours) per week of moderate-intensity, or 150 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity. If you want additional health benefits, then you can engage in physical activity beyond this amount. It’s recommended that adults perform muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or high intensity and involve all major muscle groups on 2 or more days per week, as these activities provide additional health benefits.
(a) Aerobic Exercise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_exercise
In 2017, the American Heart Association published their findings regarding the beneficial effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system. They found a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and identified physical inactivity as an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease and all other cardiovascular diseases. Children who participate in physical exercise decrease the amount of body fat and increase their cardiovascular fitness. Recent studies have demonstrated that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years, unless they participate in physical exercise. The studies also found a dose-response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700–2,000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. Those living sedentary lifestyles who become moderately active reduce their mortality of cardiovascular disease the greatest. Since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in ageing women is shown to lead to healthier cardiovascular profiles. Most of the beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40–60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). Those who alter their behaviour after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise increase their changes of survival. Those who remain sedentary are at risk of all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. It’s evident that exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiorespiratory_fitness
Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply Oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. It’s primarily measured by VO2 max. In 2016, the American Heart Association published an official scientific statement advocating that CRF be categorised as a clinical vital sign and should be routinely assessed as part of clinical practice. Regular exercise increases the efficiency of these bodily systems by enlarging cardiac muscle, pumping more blood throughout the boy with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. A 2005 study concluded that exercise provided improvements to both the respiratory system and the heart by increasing the amount of oxygen being inhaled and distributed to body tissue. A 2005 Cochrane review demonstrated that physical activity interventions are effective for increasing cardiovascular fitness.
The benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness include reductions in the risk of heart disease, lung cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, and other diseases, as well as improvements to lung and heart condition, and elevated feelings of wellbeing. Recent studies have uncovered mounting evidence that CRF may be a stronger predictor of mortality than other established risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes. Significantly, CRF can be added to these traditional risk factors to improve risk prediction validity. In 1998, the American College of Sports Medicine recommends aerobic exercise 3–5 times per week for 30–60 minutes per session, at a moderate intensity, that maintains the heart rate between 65–85% of the maximum heart rate.
Your body’s cardiovascular system responds to changing body demands by adjusting cardiac output, blood flow, and blood pressure. Cardiac output is defined as the product of heart rate and stroke volume, which represents the volume of blood being pumped by the heart every minute.
(1) During the initial stages of exercise, cardiovascular adaptations occur quite rapidly, virtually instantaneously. Within a second after muscular contraction, a withdrawal of vagal outflow to the heart occurs.
(2) This is followed by increases in sympathetic stimulation of the heart, which in turn increases cardiac output to ensure that blood flow to the muscle is matched to the metabolic needs.
(3) Both heart rate and stroke volume vary directly with the intensity of the exercise performed, but many improvements can be made through continuous training nonetheless.
(4) Another consideration is the regulation of blood flow during exercise. It increases in order to provide the working muscle with more oxygenated blood, which is accomplished through neural and chemical regulation.
(5) Because blood vessels are under sympathetic tone, therefore the release of Noradrenaline and Adrenaline will cause vasoconstriction of non-essential tissues such as the liver, intestines, and kidneys.
(6) Furthermore, it decreases neurotransmitter release to the active muscles promoting vasodilation.
(7) Chemical factors such as a decrease in oxygen concentration and an increase in carbon dioxide or lactic acid concentration in the blood promote vasodilation to increase blood flow.
(8) As a result of increased vascular resistance, blood pressure rises throughout exercise and stimulates baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and aortic arch.
(9) Baroreceptors play an important role in regulating arterial blood pressure around an elevated systemic pressure during exercise.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_adaptation
Although all of the described adaptations in the body play vital roles to maintain homeostatic balance during exercise, the role the respiratory system plays is more essential than ever. It allows for the proper exchange and transport of gases to and from the lungs, while it controls the ventilation rate through neural and chemical impulses. Moreover, the body efficiently utilises the 3 energy systems including the Phosphagen system, Glycogen system and the Oxidative system.
Respiratory adaptation refer to the specific changes that the respiratory system undergoes in response to the demands of physical exertion. Intense physical exertion, such as that involved in fitness training, elevates the physiological demands on the respiratory system. Over time, this results in respiratory changes as the system adapts to these requirements, which ultimately result in increases of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, as well as metabolic increases. Therefore, respiratory adaptation is a physiological determinant of peak endurance performance, and in elite athletes, the pulmonary system is often a limiting factor to exercise under certain conditions.
(1) When physical stress is initiated with the first instance of exercise, respiratory adaptation begins.
(2) This triggers signals from the motor cortex that stimulate the respiratory centre of the brainstem, in conjunction with feedback from the proprioceptors in the muscles and joints of the active limbs.
(3) With higher intensity training, breathing rate increases allowing more air to move in and out of the lungs, and enhancing gas exchange. Endurance training typically increases respiration rate.
(4) With adaptation, lung capacity increases over time, which allows a greater quantity of air to move in and out. Endurance training typically increases tidal volume.
(5) During respiration, the intercostal and diaphragm muscles increases its strength and endurance. This allows more air to be breathed in, for longer amounts of time with less fatigue. Aerobic training typically improves the endurance of respiratory muscles, whereas anaerobic training typically increases the size and strength of respiratory muscles.
(6) Physical exercise also increases the vascularisation of the lungs, allowing more blood flow in and out of them. This enhances the uptake of oxygen, since there is greater surface area for blood to bind with haemoglobin.
(7) Respiratory adaptation increases the number of alveoli, enabling more gas exchange to occur. This is coupled with an increase in alveolar oxygen tension.
When the human body experienced physical activity, its core temperature tends to increase as heat gain exceeds heat loss. A 2006 study discovered the factors that contribute to heat gain during exercise include anything that stimulate metabolic rate, anything from the external environment that causes heat gain, and the ability of the body to dissipate heat under any given set of circumstances. In response to these core temperature increases, a variety of factors adapt in order to help restore heat balance. One main factor is the thermal regulatory centre in the hypothalamus of the brain, which connects to thermal receptors and effectors, including sweat glands, smooth muscles of blood vessels, some endocrine glands and skeletal muscle. The thermal regulatory centre stimulates arterioles supplying blood to the skin to dilate and releases sweat on the skin surface to reduce temperature through evaporation. Moreover, the hypothalamus communicates with the cerebral cortex to initiate voluntary control such as removing clothing or drinking cold water. Taking all regulations into account, the body is able to maintain core temperature within about 2 or 3 degrees Celsius during exercise. I’ll discuss thermoregulation in animals in detail in another post.
Aerobic exercise (also known as cardio) is defined as physical exercise of low to high intensity depending on the aerobic energy-generating process. “Aerobic” means “relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen”, which refers to the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism. If light-to-moderate intensity activities are sufficiently supported by aerobic metabolism, it can be performed for extended periods of time.
Examples of aerobic exercise include:
— Jogging: This activity involves running at a steady and gentle pace, which helps maintain body weight.
— Elliptical training: This is a stationary exercise machine used to perform walking, or running without causing excessive stress on the joints. It suits those who with achy hips, knees, and ankles.
— Walking: This activity involves moving at a fairly regular pace for a short, medium or long distance.
— Treadmill training: This involves an exercise machine called a treadmill that have programs set up offering numerous different workout plans. One common effective cardiovascular activity involves switching between running and walking. A typical warm up includes a short walk first, followed by a switch off between walking for 3 minutes and running for 3 minutes.
— Swimming: This activity involves moving our arms and legs to maintain our bodies afloat and moving either forwards or backwards. This full body exercise helps strengthen your core while improving your cardiovascular endurance.
— Cycling: This activity involves riding a bicycle long distance, which are longer than walking and jogging. This is another low-stress exercise on the joints, increasing leg strength.
— Sprinting: This activity involves running short distances as fast as possible.
The salient examples of aerobic exercise and fitness are strength training and short-distance running. Aerobic and anaerobic exercises differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle. A 2013 research paper on the endocrine functions of contracting muscles demonstrate that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise promote the secretion of myokines. Immediate benefits include growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn decrease the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. Nonetheless, secretion of myokines depends on the amount of muscle contracted, and the duration and intensity of contraction. As such, both types of exercise produce endocrine benefits. In almost all conditions, anaerobic exercise is accompanied by aerobic exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. Scientists consider “solely aerobic” exercise as more accurate name because it’s designed to be adequately low-intensity so as to prevent lactate production via pyruvate fermentation, so that all carbohydrate is aerobically turned into energy.
(1) Initially during increased exertion, muscle Glycogen is broken down to produce Glucose.
(2) The Glucose then undergoes glycolysis to produce Pyruvate.
(3) The Pyruvate then reacts with Oxygen as part of the Krebs Cycle or Chemiosmosis to produce carbon dioxide and water, which releases energy in the form of ATP.
(4) If there is a shortage of Oxygen during anaerobic exercise or explosive movements, Carbohydrates are consumed more rapidly because the Pyruvate ferments into Lactate.
(5) If the intensity exceeds the rate with which the cardiovascular system can supply muscles with Oxygen, lactate accumulate and rapidly decreases the continuity of the exercise.
(6) The lactate buildup initially causes an unpleasant burning sensation in the muscles, which may eventually cause nausea, vomiting if the exercise is continued without proper clearance of lactate from the bloodstream.
(7) As Glycogen levels in the muscle decrease, Glucose continues to be released into the bloodstream by the liver. Fat metabolism increases in order to fuel the aerobic pathways.
(8) Depending on the intensity, aerobic exercise is fuelled by glycogen reserves, fat reserves, or a combination of both.
Prolonged moderate-level aerobic exercise at 65% VO2 max (heart rate: 150 bpm for a 30-year-old human) results in the maximum contribution of fat to the total energy expenditure. Depending on the duration of the exercise, at this level fat may contribute 40% to 60% of total. Vigorous exercise above 75% VO2max (160 bpm) primarily burns glycogen. In a rested, untrained human, their major muscles contains adequate energy to last about 2 hours of vigorous exercise. Glycogen exhaustion is known to be a major cause of tiring marathon runners, known as “hitting the wall”. Training, lower intensity levels, and carbohydrate loading allows postponement of the onset of exhaustion beyond 4 hours. Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms such as:
— Running long distances at moderate pace
— Playing singles tennis with near-continuous motion
— Fartlek training
— Zumba dance classes
It’s more common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively, with a few exceptions. e.g. Rowing for 2km+ works several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms. Common kettlebell exercises combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects.
Performing regular aerobic exercise elicited many recognised benefits such as:
— Strengthening the muscles involved in respiration, to facilitate the flow of air in and out of the lungs
— Strengthening and enlarging the cardiac muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning
— Improving circulation efficiency and reducing blood pressure
— Increasing the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of oxygen
— Improved mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of depression, as well as increased cognitive capacity
— Reducing the risk for diabetes, by lowering Hb A1C levels for Type 2 Diabetics.
Given these improvements, it reduces the risk of death from cardiovascular problems. Furthermore, high-impact aerobic activities (such as jogging or skipping over a rope stimulate bone growth and reduce the risk of osteoporosis for both men and women.
In addition, there are numerous performance benefits such as:
— Increased storage of energy molecules such as fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, allowing for increased endurance
— Neovascularisation of the muscle sarcomeres to increase blood flow through the muscles
— Increasing speed at which aerobic metabolism is activated within muscles, allowing a greater portion of energy for intense exercise to be generated aerobically
— Improving the ability of muscles to use fats during exercise, preserving intramuscular glycogen
— Enhancing the speed at which muscles recover from high intensity exercise
— Neurobiological effects: Improvements in brain structural connections and increased grey matter density, new neuron growth, improved cognitive function (cognitive control and various forms of memory), and improvement or maintenance of mental health
However, aerobic exercise isn’t without its potential drawbacks such as:
— Overuse injuries because of repetitive, high-impact exercise such as distance running
— Ineffectiveness in muscle hypertrophy
— Only effective for fat loss when used consistently
Both the health and performance benefits stated above, or "training effect", require a minimum duration and frequency of exercise. Most experts recommend at least 20 mins of aerobic exercise performed at least 3 times per week. In his 2010 study "The Benefits Of Exercise In Promoting Long And Healthy Lives – My Observations", Kenneth Cooper himself defined aerobic exercise as the ability to use the maximum amount of oxygen during exhaustive work. He described some of the major health benefits of aerobic exercise, such as gaining more efficient lungs by maximising breathing capacity, thereby increasing ability to ventilate more air in a shorter period of time. As breathing capacity increases, more oxygen is able to be extracted more quickly into the blood stream, increasing elimination of carbon dioxide. With aerobic exercise, the heart becomes more efficient at functioning, as well as increases in blood volume, haemoglobin and red blood cells. This enhances the ability of the body to transport oxygen from the lungs into the blood and muscles. Metabolism will change and enable consumption of more calories without putting on weight. Aerobic exercise can delay osteoporosis as there is an increase in muscle mass, a loss of fat and an increase in bone density. With these variables increasing, this decreases the likelihood of diabetes as muscles use sugars more effectively than fat. One of the major benefits of aerobic exercise is that body weight may decrease slowly. However it will only decrease at a rapid pace if there is a calorie restriction, therefore reducing obesity rates.
The functional capacity of the cardiorespiratory system (inc. the heart, the lungs and blood vessels) is described as ‘aerobic capacity’. It refers to the maximum amount of oxygen consumed by the body during intense exercises, in a given time frame. This indicates the function both of cardiorespiratory performance and the maximum ability to remove and use oxygen from circulating blood. When exercise physiologists or physicians measure aerobic capacity, they perform a VO2 max test during which the subject undergoes progressively more strenuous exercise on a treadmill, from an easy walk through to exhaustion. Whilst the subject is exercising, he/she is connected to a respirometer to measure their oxygen consumption, and the speed of the treadmill increases incrementally over a fixed duration of time. The higher the measured cardiorespiratory endurance level, the more oxygen has been transported to and used by exercising muscles, and the higher the level of intensity at which the individual can exercise. Generally, the higher the aerobic capacity, the higher the level of aerobic fitness. Physicians and physiologists also use the Cooper and multi-stage fitness tests to assess functional aerobic capacity for particular jobs or activities.
The degree to which aerobic capacity can be improved by exercise varies very widely in the human population. A 1999 study found that the average response to training is about a 17% increase in VO2max. In any population, it’s assumed there are "high responders" who may as much as double their capacity, and "low responders" who will see little or no benefit from training. A 2001 study indicated that about 10% of otherwise healthy individuals cannot improve their aerobic capacity with exercise at all. The degree of an individual's responsiveness is highly heritable, suggesting the trait is genetically determined.
An alternative to aerobic exercise includes higher intensity exercise, such as High-intensity interval training (HIIT), which increases the resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the 24 hours following the exercise. This ultimately burns calories than lower intensity exercise, which apparently burns more calories during the exercise due to the increased duration, but fewer afterwards.
Since its introduction, aerobic exercise has been a popular approach to achieving weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.
— In the 1970s, Judi Sheppard Missett helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program.
— In the 1980s, Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, and also released a series of exercise videos.
— In the 1990s, Billy Blank’s Tae Bo helped popularise cardio-boxing workouts that incorporated martial arts movements.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_exercise
(b) Anaerobic exercise
This type of physical exercise is adequately intense to produce lactate. Athletes perform this exercise in non-endurance sports to promote strength, speed and power and by body builders to build muscle mass. This trains the muscle energy systems to develop differently compared to aerobic exercise, which leads to advanced performances in short duration, high intensity activities lasting between a few seconds and up to 2 mins. Any activity lasting longer than about two minutes has a large aerobic metabolic component. Anaerobic metabolism is a natural part of whole-body metabolic energy expenditure. Fast-twitch muscle (compared to slow twitch muscle) operates using anaerobic metabolic systems. When recruited, they increase anaerobic energy expenditure. Intense exercise lasting up to about 4 minutes (e.g., a mile-long race) may still have a considerable anaerobic energy expenditure component. Although it’s based on aerobic exercises like running, cycling and rowing, high-intensity interval training effectively becomes anaerobic when performed in excess of 90% maximum heart rate. Physiologists have found it difficult to accurately quantify anaerobic energy expenditure, although several reasonable methods to estimate the anaerobic component to exercise are available.
There are 2 types of anaerobic energy systems. One is high energy phosphates, ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and Creatine Phosphate; and the other is anaerobic glycolysis. Fun fact: The former is called alactic anaerobic and the latter lactic anaerobic system. High energy phosphates are stored in limited quantities within muscle cells. Anaerobic glycolysis exclusively uses Glucose (and Glycogen) as a fuel in the absence of oxygen, or more specifically when ATP is needed at rates that exceed those provided by aerobic metabolism. This rapid glucose breakdown consequently generates lactic acid (or more appropriately, its conjugate base lactate at biological pH levels). Physical activities lasting up to about 30 seconds rely primarily on the former, ATP-CP Phosphagen system. Beyond this time both aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis-based metabolic systems begin to predominate.
So far, it’s known that elevated levels of lactate are one of many changes that occur within and around muscle cells during intense exercise that can lead to fatigue. Fatigue, defined as muscle failure, is a complex topic itself. It’s natural to have elevated muscle and blood lactate concentrations after physical exertion. With intense training, the effectiveness of anaerobic activity can be improved.
Examples of anaerobic exercises include:
— Sprinting
— Golf
— 2 person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks
Specific or task-oriented fitness refers to your ability to perform in a specific activity with a reasonable efficiency such as sports or military service. Nevertheless, specific training prepares athletes to perform well in their sport. Examples include:
— 100 m sprint = A sprint athlete trains to work anaerobically throughout the race, an example of how to do this would be interval training.
— Century Ride = Cyclists prepare aerobically for this bike ride, which is 100 miles + long.
— Middle distance running = Athletes train their hardest-working muscles to increase both their speed and endurance. Their muscles’ work need to peak for a longer period of time as they are being used at that level for the longer period of time.
— Marathon = Athletes train to work aerobically in order to build up their endurance to a maximum.
— Firefighters and police officers undergo regular fitness testing to determine their capability of performing physically demanding tasks required of the job.
— Members of armed forces are required to pass a formal fitness test. e.g. US Army soldiers have to pass the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT).
— Hill sprinters require a level of fitness to begin with, especially one that exercises the leg muscles. The army often trains to do mountain climbing and races.
— Plyometric and isometric exercises are exceptional are building strength and increasing muscular endurance.
— Sand running: This activity generates less strain on the leg muscles than running on grass or concrete. This is because sand collapses beneath the foot, softening the landing. Therefore, sand training is regarded as an effective way to lose weight and increase fitness, as more effort is needed (one and a half times more) to run on the soft sand than on a hard surface.
— Aquajogging is a form of exercise that decreases strain on joints and bones. This is because water supplies minimal impact to muscles and bones, which is suitable for those recovering from injury. Furthermore, the resistance of the water as one jogs through it provides an enhanced effect of exercise (the deeper you are the greater the force needed to pull your leg through).
— Swimmers squat before jumping into the pool because it enhances their start at swimming.
For physical fitness activity to benefit an individual, the exertion triggers a response called a stimulus. To produce the most improvement, exercises must be performed at the correct amount of intensity, duration, and frequency according to your body’s physical limits. The exerciser may overall feel improvement, but the physical effects on the human body take weeks or months to notice and possibly years for full development. For training purposes, the exercise you perform must provide a stress or demand on either a function or tissue. To prolong these improvements, this demand must eventually increase little over an extended period of time. This sort of exercise training has 3 basic principles: overload, specificity, and progression, which are related to health but also enhancement of physical working capacity.
What are the effects of physical fitness?
(a) Controlling blood pressure
Engaging in physical activity helps raise blood pressure, especially systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Once one stops being active, the blood pressure returns to normal. Increased engagement in physical activity eases this process, raising the ‘fitness’ of the individual. Through regular physical fitness, the heart doesn’t have to work as hard to raise blood pressure, which lowers the force on the arteries, and lowers the overall blood pressure.
(b) Cancer prevention
Centres for disease control and prevention provide lifestyle guidelines of maintaining a balanced diet and engaging in physical activity to reduce the risk of disease. The WCRF / American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) published a list of recommendations that reflect the evidence they have found through consistency in fitness and dietary factors that directly relate to cancer prevention, which were widely supported by the American Cancer Society. They include the following:
— Be as lean as possible without becoming underweight.
— Each week, adults should engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity physical activity.
— Children should engage in at least one hour of moderate or vigorous physical activity each week.
— Be physically active for at least thirty minutes every day.
— Avoid sugar, and limit the consumption of energy packed foods.
— Balance one's diet with a variety of vegetables, grains, fruits, legumes, etc
— Limit Sodium intake, the consumption of red meats and the consumption of processed meats.
— Limit alcoholic drinks to two for men and one for women a day.
These guidelines have been evaluated and individuals that have higher guideline adherence scores substantially reduced their cancer risk and helped towards control with a multitude of chronic health problems. Regular physical activity is a factor that helps reduce an individual’s blood pressure and improves cholesterol levels, which are 2 key components that correlate with heart disease and Type 2 Diabetes. American Cancer Society encouraged the public to "adopt a physically active lifestyle" by meeting the criteria in a variety of physical activities such as hiking, swimming, circuit training, resistance training, lifting, etc. Nonetheless, cancer is not a disease that can be cured by physical fitness alone, however, because it is a multifactorial disease, physical fitness is a controllable prevention that helps reduce the risk of cancer. The American Cancer Society asserted different levels of activity ranging from moderate to vigorous to clarify the recommended time spent on a physical activity. These classifications of physical activity considered the intentional exercise and basic activities are performed on a daily basis and provided a greater understanding of what fitness levels suffice as future disease prevention.
(c) Inflammation
Studies have found that increased physical activity reduces inflammation, more technically both a short-term inflammatory response and a long-term anti-inflammatory effect, which is conjunction with or independent of changes in body weight. However, the mechanisms linking physical activity to inflammation remain unknown.
(d) Immune System
It’s known physical activity boosts the human immune system, depending on the concentration of endogenous factors (such as sex hormones, metabolic hormones and growth hormones), body temperature, blood flow, hydration status and body position. Recent studies have found that physical activity increases the levels of natural killer (NK) cells, NK T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils, complements, cytokines, antibodies and T cytotoxic cells. However, the mechanism linking physical activity to immune system is not fully understood.
(e) Weight Control
Achieving resilience through physical fitness promotes a vast and complex range of health-related benefits. Those who maintain physical fitness levels generally regulate their distribution of body fat and stay away from obesity. High engagement in physical aerobic exercise most directly affects the levels of abdominal fat, specifically visceral fat. A 2014 study conclude that strength training increased the amount of muscle in the body, as well as reduce body fat. A 2003 study implicated sex steroid hormones, Insulin, and an appropriate immune response are factors that mediate metabolism in relation to the abdominal fat. Therefore, physical fitness provides weight control through regulation of these bodily functions.
(f) Menopause
Menopause is often said to have occurred when a woman experienced no vaginal bleeding for over a year since her last menstrual cycle. A number of symptoms linked to menopause mostly affect the quality of life of a woman involved in this stage of her life. Exercise is known to reduce severity of the symptoms and maintain a healthy level of fitness. Prior to and during menopause, as the female body changes, there can be physical, physiological or internal changes to the body. These changes can be reduced or even prevented with regular exercise. These changes include:
— Preventing weight gain: Around menopause, women tend to experience a reduction in muscle mass and an increase in fat levels. So, increasing the amount of physical exercise undertaken can help to prevent these changes.
— Reducing the risk of breast cancer: Weight loss from regular exercise may offer protection from breast cancer.
— Strengthening bones: Physical activity can slow the bone loss associated with menopause, reducing the chance of bone fractures and osteoporosis.
— Reducing the risk of disease: Excess weight can increase the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes, and regular physical activity can counter these effects.
— Boosting mood: Being involved in regular activities can improve psychological health. This effect can be seen at any age and not just during or after menopause.
On January 12 2012, The Melbourne Women’s Midlife Health Project uncovered evidence that showed over an 8-year time period 438 were followed, despite physical activity not associated with VMS in this cohort at the beginning. Women who reported they were physically active every day at the beginning were 49% less likely to have reported bothersome hot flushes. This is in contrast to women whose level of activity decreased and were more likely to experience bothersome hot flushes.
(g) Mental Health
Recent studies have demonstrated that physical activity can improve mental health and wellbeing, because it increases blood flow to the brain and stimulates the release of hormones. Other mental health benefits include:
— Alleviating depression and anxiety symptoms
— Improving the quality of life and decrease the effects of schizophrenia
— Improving self-esteem
— Improving mental alertness and reducing fatigue
— Reducing stress levels
— Increasing opportunities for social interaction, allowing for improved social skills.
To achieve some of these benefits, the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention suggested at least 30-60 minutes of exercise 3-5 times a week.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyweight_exercise
Bodyweight exercises are strength training exercises that utilise the trainee’s own weight to provide resistance against gravity. They enhance a range of biomotor abilities including strength, power, endurance, speed, flexibility, coordination and balance. Both recreational and professional athletes have taken a liking to this type of exercise because it utilises simple abilities such as pushing, pulling, squatting, bending, twisting and balancing. Therefore performing these exercises usually don’t require any gym equipment nor any financial cost. However for some bodyweight exercises that require assistance using equipment, common items found in the household are usually sufficient (such as a bath towel for towel curls), or substitutes can usually be improvised e.g. Using a horizontal tree branch to perform pull ups. Whenever you’re travelling or on holiday, or unable to access a gym or specialised equipment, bodyweight exercises seemingly are convenient at your disposal.
Nevertheless, it should be duly noted that any weight being lifted should not be greater than the weight of your body. Bodyweight exercises may be daunting to novices, but a piece of cake for experienced athletes. Women generally experience greater difficulty performing bodyweight exercises involving upper body strength, hence they may be discouraged from undertaking these exercises in their fitness regimens.
Bodyweight exercises benefit both the young and elderly, nonetheless. In elderly people, these exercises increases their muscle mass, motility, bone density, decreases their depression, and improves their sleep habits. Furthermore, it decreases or even prevents cognitive decline in ageing humans. Bodyweight training can mitigate the increasing risk of falls observed in elderly people. It’s recommended to perform exercises that focus on the legs, and abdomen such as squats, lunges and step ups in order to increase leg and core strength, as well as reduce the risk of falling. This provides multi-directional movement that mimics daily activities, and can thus be preferable to using weight machines.
What is weight training?
Weight training is a popular type of strength training that develops the strength and size of the skeletal muscles. It utilises the force of gravity in the form of weighted bars, dumbbells or weight stacks in order to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction. It also uses a variety of specialised equipment to target specific muscle groups and types of movement. This type of training is central to many sports like bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting and strongman, highland games, hammer throw, shot put, discus throw, and javelin throw. I’ll delve into every sport invented and known by man in another post.
The genealogy of lifting traces back to the beginning of recorded history where humanity's fascination with physical abilities can be found among numerous ancient writings. In many prehistoric tribes, members would turn turns attempting to lift up a large rock. The first one to successfully lift it without causing any injury mishap would honourably inscribe their name into that stone. Such inscribed rocks have been discovered in Greek and Scottish castles. Progressive resistance training dates back at least to Ancient Greece, when legend has it that wrestler Milo of Croton trained his muscles by carrying a newborn calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. A Greek physician named Galen described strength training exercises using the halteres (early dumbbell) in the 2nd century. There are Ancient Greek sculptures that also depicted lifting feats involving stones, then later to dumbbells and barbells in the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today. Another early device was the Indian Club, originating from ancient Persia where it was called the “meels”. Its subsequent popularity came during the 19th century, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell. Weightlifting officially became an Olympic sport in the 1896 Athens Olympics Games as part of the track and field event, before it was officially recognised as its own event in 1914. During the 1960s, exercise machines were gradually introduced into the still-rare strength training gyms at the time. In the next decade, weight training grew in popularity following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron, and subsequent popularity of celebrity actor Arnold Schwarzeneggar. Since the late 1990s, more women have taken up weight training thanks to programs like Body For Life. Since 2007, nearly 1 out of 5 American women engage in weight training on a regular basis.
What are the basic principles of weight training?
The basic principles of weight training are essentially identical to strength training, which involves adjusting the number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercise types, and weight moved to invoke desired increases in strength, endurance, and size according to your body’s capabilities and physical limits. Whichever specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, and weights is allocated depends on the aims of the individual performing the exercise. Weight training involves utilising various types of equipment including barbells, dumbbells, pulleys and stacks in the form of weight machines, and the person’s own weight in the case of chin-ups and push-ups. Different types of weights offer different types of resistance, and often the same absolute weight can have different relative weights depending on the type of equipment used.
e.g. Lifting 5kg using a dumbbell occasionally requires more force than moving 5kg on a weight stack if certain pulley arrangements are used. In other cases, the weight stack may require more force than the equivalent dumbbell weight due to additional torque or resistance in the machine. In addition, despite both scenarios involving the same weight, different machines may be heavier or lighter depending on the number of pulleys and their arrangements.
Weight training requires the use of ‘good form’, which refers to performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group. If weight is transferred to different body parts in order to move greater weight, this is called ‘cheating’. Failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or a failure to meet training goals. Since the desired muscle group lacks a physical challenge, the threshold of overload is never achieved and the muscle doesn’t gain any strength. At a particularly advanced level, nonetheless, "cheating" can be used to break through strength plateaus and encourage neurological and muscular adaptation.
How is weight training safe?
Weight training is a safe form of exercise because the movements are controlled and thoroughly defined. However, improper execution and failure to take appropriate precautions can result in injury.
(i) Maintaining proper form
This concept is one of the many steps in order to perfectly perform a certain technique. When the correct weight training form is used, it improves strength, muscle tone, and maintains a healthy body weight, as well as prevents any strains or fractures. As the difficulty of the exercise increases, your body is tempted to cheat, i.e, use a poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. It’s recommended to avoid heavy weights and keep the number of repetitions to a minimum. This shifts the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight.
e.g. Squats and deadlifts help exercise the leg and buttock muscles, so they require substantial weight. Beginners of these exercises are tempted to round their back while performing these exercises. As they relax their spinal erectors, their lower back would round, which could cause shearing in the vertebrae of the lumbar spine, potentially damaging the spinal discs.
(ii) Stretching & Warming Up
Prior to starting a workout, weight trainers commonly spend 5 - 20 mins warming up their muscles. It is common to stretch the entire body to increase overall flexibility, however, many people virtually stretch the area being worked that day. Warming up helps prevent injury and increase blood flow and flexibility, which lessens the chance of a muscle pull or joint pain.
e.g. A lifter completes at 2 warm-up sets prior to hitting his “core tonnage”, which refers to the heavier lifts that actually strain your muscles. For instance, if the lifter’s main sets at 40kg, 45kg and 50kg on the bench, then a warmup of 5 reps of 20kg and 5 reps of 25kg would be advisable. Some lifters warm up with a 50/50 set. e.g. 50% of the target weight for 50% of the target repetitions. With proper pre-workout warm up, the lifter gains more strength and stamina since the blood has begun to flow to the muscle groups.
(iii) Breathing
People performing weight training tends to deepen their breathing patterns, which helps meet increased oxygen requirements. It’s recommended to avoid holding your breath or shallow breathing because it may lead to a lack of oxygen, passing out, or an excessive build up of blood pressure. According to experts, the recommended breathing technique consists of inhaling when lowering the weight (the eccentric portion) and exhaling when lifting the weight (the concentric portion). However, inhaling when lifting and exhaling when lowering is also accepted. Some researchers state that there is little difference between the 2 breathing techniques in terms of their influence on heart rate and blood pressure. Therefore it recommends weight lifters to simply breathe in the most appropriate manner according to their body’s needs. If you’re lifting heavy weights, deep breathing is recommended because it helps to generate intra-abdominal pressure which can help to strengthen your posture, and especially your core. In certain situations, a fitness coach may advise you to perform the valsalva maneuveur during exercises by placing a load on your spine. The reasoning behind this maneuveur is because the risk of a stroke by aneurysm is astronomically lower than the risk of an orthopaedic injury caused by inadequate rigidity of the torso. According to former Australian cricketer Stuart Macgill’s 2007 book “Breathing”, he mentions that the mechanism of building "high levels of intra-abdominal pressure (IAP)...produced by breath holding using the Valsava maneuver", to "ensure spine stiffness and stability during these extraordinary demands", "should be considered only for extreme weight-lifting challenges — not for rehabilitation exercise”.
(iv) Hydration
Because weight training is a dehydrating workout, it’s recommended to drink sufficient water, particularly in hot environments, or for weight trainers older than 65. Some athletic trainers advise athletes to drink 7 imperial fluid ounces (200 mL) every 15 minutes while exercising, and about 80 imperial fluid ounces (2.3 L) throughout the day. In order to accurately determine the amount of fluid required to consume during a workout, appropriate weight measurement tests need to be performed before and after a typical exercise session, because it determines the amount of fluid lost during the workout. The greatest source of fluid loss during exercise is through perspiration, but as long as your fluid intake is roughly equivalent to your rate of perspiration, hydration levels will be maintained. Under most circumstances, sports drinks don’t offer a physiological benefit over water during weight training. However, high-intensity exercises for a continuous duration of at least 1 hour may require the replenishment of electrolytes which a sports drink may provide like Gatorade and Powerade. Some athletes maintain that energy drinks, such as Red Bull containing caffeine, improves performance in weight training and other physical exercise. However, the truth is these energy drinks can cause dehydration, tremors, heat stroke, and heart attack when consumed in excessive amounts. Although some 'sports drinks' containing simple carbohydrates & water don’t cause ill effects, they are most likely unnecessary for the average trainee. Recent trainers pre-workout prior to the main workout in order to maximise their performance. The main ingredients in these pre-workouts are: β-Alanine, Creatine, BCAAs (Branched Chain Amino Acids) and Caffeine. If you drink insufficient amounts of water, this would cause lethargy, soreness, or muscle cramps. The urine of well-hydrated persons should be virtually colourless, while an intense yellow colour is normally a sign of insufficient hydration.
(v) Avoiding Pain
Whenever you feel any marked or sudden pain, you must halt the exercise immediately in order to prevent further injury. However, you should note that not all discomfort indicates injury. Although weight training exercises are brief, but many people are unaccustomed to the level of effort require to cope with the intensities. The expression “no pain, no gain” refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to wilfully ignore extreme pain. This indicates serious soft tissue injuries, hence the priority must be proper form, not the amount of weight lifted. Discomfort can arise from other factors such as performing large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group, which causes a burning sensation in their muscles. This would exacerbate to a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow (the “pump"). True muscle fatigue involves a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibres themselves. Temporary muscle failure is often caused by extreme neural fatigue. Some weight training programs, such as Metabolic Resistance Training, actively seek temporary muscle failure. However, evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, muscle failure always eventuates in high-intensity weight training regimes. If you’re a beginner to a weight training program, it’s advised to build up your regime gradually. Although, some untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others, nevertheless, injury can result if (in a particular exercise) the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilising muscles. Slow buildup of muscles allows them time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This would help minimise delayed onset muscle soreness. Suddenly starting an intense weight training program would lead to significant muscular soreness, due to torn cross-linkages in under-exercised muscles. It’s recommended to perform a regimen of flexibility exercises before pursuing weight training in order to avoid soft tissue pain and injuries.
(vi) Other Precautions
If you’re considering to perform an intensive physical training program, it’s advised to consult a physician. They have the expertise and apparatus to detect any possible undetected heart or other conditions. If you’re performing a bench press or a squat and the heavy lift ends up trapping you under the weight, it’s advised to perform these exercises inside a power rack, or in the presence of 1 or more spotters, who can safely re-rack the barbell if the weight trainer is unable to do so.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_equipment
Weight training requires different types of equipment, which are listed below:
(A) Free-weight training:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumbbell
The forerunner of the dumbbell, haltares, were used in Ancient Greece as lifting weights and also as weights in the ancient Greek version of the long jump. The Indian club was a kind of dumbbell shaped like a club used in India for more than a millennium. Despite their common English name implying an Indian origin, the so-called Indian clubs were in fact created in the Near East. In fact, they were first recorded as being used by wrestlers in ancient Persia, Egypt and Middle East, which were referred to as meels at the time. This ancient practice has continued to the present day, notably in the Varzesh-e Bastan tradition practiced in the zurkaneh of Iran. From Persia, the Mughals brought the meels to South Asia, where they are still used by pehlwan (wrestlers). When British colonists first came across Persian meels in India, they erroneously referred to them as "Indian clubs" despite their Middle Eastern origin. As the equipment was referred to, the design of the “Nal” was seen as a halfway point between a barbell and a dumbbell. In ancient workouts, wrestlers, bodybuilders, sports players and others used them in pairs in order to increase strength and muscle size.
The term “dumbbell” or “dumb bell originated in late Stuart England in 1711. It was first mentioned by the poet Joseph Addison in his essay published in The Spectator. Although Addison elsewhere in the same publication describes having used equipment similar to the modern understanding of dumbbells, according to sport historian Jan Todd, the form of the first dumbbells remains unclear. The Oxford English Dictionary describes the dumbbells as "apparatus similar to that used to ring a church bell, but without the bell, so noiseless or ‘dumb’”. This implied implying the action of pulling a bell rope to practise English bellringing.
By the early 17th century, the familiar shape of the dumbbell consisting of 2 equal weights attached to a handle appeared. There are currently 3 main types of dumbbell:
- Adjustable Dumbbells = This consists of a metal bar whose centre portion is often engraved with a crosshatch pattern (knurling) to improve grip. Weight plates slide onto the outer portions of the dumbbell and with clips or collars securing it. For example, a “spinlock” dumbbell has its ends threaded to accept large nuts as collars. Alternatively, a dumbbell may have smooth ends with plates being secured by a sprung collar. Nowadays, many commercially sold dumbbells are available with sophisticated, and easy-to-use methods for weight increments adjustments.
- Fixed-weight Dumbbells = These have a dumbbell shape, with their weight is written on them in kgs. Inexpensive varieties consist of cast iron, occasionally coated with rubber or neoprene for comfort. Even cheaper versions consist of a rigid plastic shell filled with concrete.
- “Selectorised” Dumbbells = They are adjustable dumbbells whose number of plates (i.e. weight) can be easily changed when resting in the dumbbell stand. Rather than manually adding or removing plates, the number of plates that follow the handle when lifted is adjusted by turning a dial or moving a selector pin. This eases the way the weight of the dumbbell is changed between exercises, and typically double the stand as storage for the additional weights not being used for a particular exercise.
— Kettlebells = A cast-iron or cast steel ball with a handle attached to the top that resembles a cannonball with a handle. This is often used to perform many types of exercises, including but not limited to ballistic exercises combining cardiovascular, strength and flexibility training. They are also the primary equipment used in the weight lifting sport of kettlebell lifting.
In the 18th century, the Russian girya (ги́ря, a loanword from Persian غران girān “heavy") was a type of metal weight that was primarily used to weigh crops. Circus strongmen were recorded as the first to use such weights in the 19th century. In the late 19th century, girya began to be used for recreational and competition strength athletics in Russia and Europe. The birth of competitive kettlebell lifting or girevoy sport (гиревой спорт) is dated to 1885, with the founding of the "Circle for Amateur Athletics" (Кружок любителей атлетики). Russian kettlebells (ги́ри giri, singular ги́ря girya) were traditionally measured in weight by pood, which corresponded to 16.38 kg (36.1 lb). Since the early 20th century, the English term kettle bell began to used more frequently. Similar weights used in Classical Greece like the haltere were comparable to the modern kettlebell in terms of movements. Another comparable instrument was used by Chinese Shaolin monks.
Unlike traditional dumbbells, a kettlebell's centre of mass extends beyond the hand, similar to Indian clubs or ishi sashi, which helps facilitate ballistic and swinging movements. It allows for swing movements and release moves with added safety and added grip, wrist, arm and core strengthening. Variants of the kettlebell include bags filled with sand, water, or steel shot, which may distribute the weight unevenly. Thus, the unique shape of a kettlebell provides the "unstable force" for handling, which is the key for the effectiveness of the kettlebell exercises. The anatomy of the kettlebell can be broken down into: handle, corner(s), horn(s), window, bell, and base.
You can read all the kettlebell exercises in the link above.
Typical kettlebell exercises build strength and endurance, particularly in the lower back, legs, and shoulders, and increase grip strength. The basic movements, such as the swing, snatch, and the clean and jerk, engage the entire body at once. They mimic real world activities such as shovelling or farm work. These exercises involve large numbers of repetitions in the sport and in normal training. They are in their nature holistic, therefore they work several muscles simultaneously and can be repeated continuously for several minutes or with short breaks. This combination makes the exercise partially aerobic and more similar to high-intensity interval, but less so to traditional weight lifting. A 2010 study found that kettlebell enthusiasts who performed a 20-min snatch workout burned an average of 13.6 cal/min aerobically and 6.6 cal/min anaerobically during the entire workout, which is "equivalent to running a 6-min mile pace”. For training sessions with high repetitions, it’s recommended that kettlebell progression should be carried out at slow pace initially to build muscle endurance, support the joints and prevent injury.
— Barbells = These consist of a long bar with weights attached at each end, which are often used in weight training, bodybuilding, weightlifting and powerlifting. They range in length from 1.2 m (4 ft) to above 2.4 m (8 ft), while some powerlifters use bars longer than 2.2 m (7.2 ft). The central portion of the bar varies in diameter from 25 mm (0.98 in) to 50 mm (1.96 in) (e.g. Apollon's Axle), and is often engraved with a knurled crosshatch pattern to help lifters maintain a solid grip. Weight plates slide onto the outer portions of the bar to increase or decrease the desired total weight. Collars are used to prevent plates from moving outward unevenly so that the lifter does not experience uneven force.
What are other types of barbells?
(i) Prototypical “Olympic” revolving barbell = This barbell was produced by the company Berg in 1910, but designed by Veltum. This made the barbell easier to revolve during the lift which changed the way how Olympic lifting is performed. After 1928 Amsterdam Olympic Games, the barbells began to rise in popularity and many companies started to copy the barbell. The Berg barbell and copies of it were spread through many gyms around the world mainly from the 1960s to the 1970s because of the rise of a new barbell.
(ii) “Standard” barbells = Despite the name, it hardly shares any similarity with one another dimension wise. Their ends don’t rotate, and mount plates with an approximately 25 mm (0.98 in) centre hole. The thickness of the grip section is most commonly 1.0625 in (27 mm) in the United States or 28 mm (1.1 in) in Europe, but these figures are vary, depending on the quality. Neither bar weight nor length is standardised like men's or women's Olympic bars, and can range from 1.22 m (4.0 ft) to 2.16 m (7.1 ft). They are rarely rated for more than 500 kg (1,100 lb) of loading.
(iii) Dumbbells = They are the equivalent of one-handed barbells, with a gripping surface approximately 16 cm (6.3 in) and a total length that rarely exceeds 50 cm (20 in). Adjustable dumbbells are the most prominent use of "standard" weight plates (those having a 25 mm (0.98 in) centre hole).
(iv) EZ curl bars = Originally known as a ‘Dymeck curling bar’ after its inventor Lewis G. Dymeck, the EZ ("easy") curl bar is a variant of the barbell. It’s often used for biceps curls, upright rows, and lying triceps extensions. The curved profile of the bar in the grip region allows the user's wrists and forearms to take a more neutral, less supinated position, which reduces the risk of repetitive stress injury in these exercises. However, when performing the biceps curl, using an EZ curl bar prevents full contraction of the biceps. This can only occur with the wrist fully supinated, thus it may prove a less effective exercise.
(v) Fixed barbells = Primarily found in gyms, these are usually fairly short bars with weights already attached and welded to the bar. Occasionally, the plates are covered with plastic / rubber. A typical gym might carry a range of fixed barbells from 5 kg to around 40 kg. They come in handy because they take less space than full-length bars and are useful for many exercises where less weight is required. It provides an easier starting point for beginners before moving on to using the full olympic bars. Furthermore, they allow speedy transitions between various weights if you’re using multiple weights in quick succession.
(vi) Thick-handled barbells = These speciality items challenge the grip, and are often used in strongman competitions for the deadlift and overhead presses, such as Apollon's Axle. Recently, exotic 76 mm (3 in) diameter bars have appeared, but their practicality is questionable. They are made in China, and can weigh up to 61 kg (135 lb).
(vii) Triceps bars = They have a similar function to an EZ curl bar, consisting of 2 parallel handles mounted in a cage. It’s used to perform triceps extensions and hammer curls.
(viii) Trap bar / Hex bars = These are hexagon-shaped bars where the user stands grasps the middle portion of it, via side handles, with a neutral grip. It places the centre of gravity closer to the lifter, which helps perform deadlifts and shrugs.
(ix) Altas bars = This is an ergonomic grip structure consisting of parallel bars closely spaced together. It can take the form of a barbell, dumbbell, cable or machine attachment. The parallel bars are closely spaced because they are joined by joint plates rather than any grips or handles, which creates a narrow hand insertion space where the user can only use a prone or supine grip. The user may grip one bar while the other rests on their forearm below their wrists. This grip style keeps the users locked in a straight position and increases tension in the targeted muscles while reducing wrist strain. Altas bars may also be used to perform squats, as well as for training and for rehabilitative purposes because of their ergonomic structure.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_plate
Weight plates are flat, heavy objects, usually made of cast iron. They are often used in combination with barbells or dumbbells to produce a bar with a desired total weight for the purpose of physical exercise. There are 2 general categories; "standard" plates” & “Olympic” plates. Standard plates have a centre hole of approximately 1 inch (25 mm), while Olympic plates fit on 2-inch (50 mm) sleeves of Olympic barbells. Standard plates are usually paired with adjustable dumbbells and Olympic plates with full-size barbells, although standard barbells and Olympic dumbbells exist.
Weight plates may incorporate holes for ease of carrying (called "grip plates") or be solid discs (especially those used for competition. Non-competition plates often have variable diameters and widths, such as on the adjustable dumbbells pictured right, with heavier plates generally being larger in diameter, thickness, or both. Weight plates are typically round, although 12-sided and other polygonal varieties exist. Most plates are coated with enamel paint or hammertone to resist corrosion. More expensive plates are coated with chrome, rubber, or plastic.
Plates are available in a range of weights, with American standard plates commonly available in 2.5, 5, 10, and 25 lb denominations, with 1.25, 7.5, 12.5, 50, and 100 lb plates less commonly seen. Commonly available plates in most other countries with kilogram denominations are 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 kg, with 0.5, 7.5, and 25 kilogram plates less commonly seen. Common Olympic (2-inch center hole) plate denominations are 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 35, and 45 lbs, with 1.25 and 100 pound discs less commonly seen. Kilogram-denominated plates are available in 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kg sizes, with 0.25, 0.5, and 50 kilogram discs less commonly seen. A few companies sell "fractional" weight plates weighing 1 lb (0.5 kg) or less, which allow "microloading" of bars to achieve very small increments in strength for advanced strength trainees. Another alternative to microloading is to use a set of washers with 1- or 2-inch centre holes.
Cheaper plates can vary widely from their marked weight, around 2-3%. Some manufacturers make plates frequently being 10% or more over or under (a 45-lb plate can weigh as little as 40 lbs, or as much as 50). For example, Tom Lincir, the founder of the Ivankor Barbell Company, has encountered 45-lb plates weighing as little as 38 lb, or as much as 59 lb. When plates are weights, their true weight would be marked with a paint pen or other permanent marker. Calibrated plates are available from high-end manufacturers, with many advertising them as being accurate to within 10 grams (0.02 lb) of marked weight, which is the tolerance mandated by the International Weightlifting Federation for plates used in competition.
- Red = 25 kg (55.12 lb) or 2.5 kg (5.51 lb)
- Blue = 20 kg (44.09 lb) or 2 kg (4.41 lb)
- Yellow = 15 kg (33.07 lb) or 1.5 kg (3.31 lb)
- Green = 10 kg (22.05 kb) or 1.0 kg (2.20 lb)
- White = 5 kg (11.02 lb) or 0.5 kg (1.10 lb)
During the period 1976 - 1980, the 50 kg (110 lb) green bumper plates were only officially approved for use by IWF in Montreal being the only Olympic venue where they were deployed. Presently, Olympic plates of 10 kg (22 lb) or more are 450 millimetres (18 in) in diameter. 450 millimetres (18 in) versions also exist of the lighter 5 kilograms (11 lb) and 2.5 kilograms (5.5 lb) plates to accommodate the proper starting position for beginner athletes. These can be made of aluminium or plastic with or without rubber edges.
Weight machines:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_machine
Weight machines use gravity as the primary source of resistance and a combination of simple machines to convey the resistance to the person using the machine. Each of the simple machines (pulley, lever, wheel, incline) changes the mechanical advantage of the overall machine relative to the weight.
The means of lifting the bar varies, as some machines have a roller at the top of the bar that sits on a lever. As the lever is raised, the bar also raises and the roller moves along the lever. This allows the bar to remain vertical. Some machines have the bar attached to a hinge on the liver, which can sway the bar and the plates as the lever oscillates. Other machines have the bar attached to a cable or belt, which runs through pulleys or over a wheel. The other end of the cable will either be a handle or strap that the user holds or wraps around some body part, or will be attached to a lever, adding further simple machines to the mechanical chain.
Usually, each plate is marked with a number, with some machines indicating the actual weight of the plate and those above it. Other machines’ numbered plated indicate the force at the user's actuation point with the machine, or simply an index counting the number of plates being lifted. The early Nautilus machines were a combination of lever and cable machines, containing optional, fixed elements such as a chinning bar. Universal Gym Equipment pioneered the multi-station style of machines.
e.g. Imagine an incline press machine that is a single-lever machine that has the plates halfway up the lever from the handles to the fulcrum. It starts moving the plate at a 45-degree angle from the vertical. The lever will provide a leverage advantage of 2:1, and the incline will have an advantage of 1:√2/2, for a net mechanical advantage of (4/√2):1 ≈ 2.8:1. Thus 50 kg (~491 N) of plates will apply to the user only an equaling weight of 18 kg or a force of ~174 N at the beginning of the motion.
On the other end of the spectrum, a bent-over-row machine can be designed with the user's grip between the plates and the fulcrum. This amplifies the force needed by the user relative to the weight of the plates.
— Cables
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_rower
An indoor rower, or rowing machine, is a machine that simulates the action of watercraft rowing for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. In modern times, indoor rowers are often referred to as ergometers (colloquially erg or ergo), which are devices that measures the amount of work performed. They are calibrated to measure the amount of energy the rower is using through their use of the equipment.
The first rowing machines were introduced by an Athenian admiral of the 4th century BC named Chabrias. They were used as supplemental military training devices in order to train inexperienced oarsmen. Therefore, Chabrias built wooden rowing frames on shore where beginners could learn technique and timing before they went on board ship. Early rowing machines are known to have existed from the mid-1800s, and in 1872, a US patent was issued to W.B. Curtis for a particular hydraulic based damper design. Machines using linear pneumatic resistance were common around 190, with one of the most popular being the Narragansett hydraulic rower, which was manufactured in Rhode Island from around 1900–1960. However they did not simulate actual rowing very accurately nor measure power output.
All rowing-machine designs consist of an energy damper or braking mechanism connected to a chain, strap, belt and/or handle, with footrests attached to the same mounting as the energy damper. Most machines include a rail which either the seat or the mechanism slide upon. Each machine, with its own layout and damping mechanisms, has its own advantages and disadvantages. Currently available ergometer (flywheel-type) rowing machines use a spring or elastic cord to take up the pull chain/strap and return the handle. Advances in elastic cord and spring technology have contributed to the longevity and reliability of this mechanism, but it still has disadvantages. With long-term usage, the elastic element would lose its strength and elasticity, which eventually requires adjustment and replacement. The resilience of an elastic cord is also directly proportional to temperature. In an unheated space in a cold climate, an elastic cord equipped rowing ergometer can’t be used because the chain take-up is too sluggish. Thus, as the result of several factors, the force required to stretch the elastic cord is a variable, not a constant. This is almost inconsequential if the exercise device is used for general fitness, but it is an unacknowledged problem, the "dirty little secret", of indoor rowing competitions. The electronic monitor measures the user input to the flywheel, but it doesn’t measure the energy expenditure to stretch the elastic cord. A claim of a "level playing field" cannot be made when a resistance variable exists (that of the elastic cord), which is not measured or monitored in any way.
The algorithm rowing machines with a digital display use to calculate the user's power requires measurements of the speed of the flywheel during the stroke and then recording the rate at which it decelerates during the recovery. Using this and the known moment of inertia of the flywheel, the computer is able to calculate speed, power, distance and energy usage. Some ergometers can be connected to a personal computer using appropriate software, and data on individual exercise sessions can be collected and analysed. In addition, some software packages allows users to connect multiple ergometers either directly or over the internet for virtual races and workouts.
Variable resistance training:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_band
Lifting accessories:
— Wrist wraps
(B) Strongman (strength athlete) equipment:
Training sleds:
— Pull sleds — Logs
— Axles
General Grip strength:
— Power pins
(C) Bodyweight training, Calisthenics and Gymnastics equipment
— High & Low P-bars
Pulling-related:
— Peg boards
— Doorway (use leverage around door frame)
Suspension training / trainer:
— Flying
Limb Weights:
Ropes:
(D) Myofascial Release and Recovery Tools
Rolling:
Balls:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_ball
A medicine ball / exercise ball / med ball / fitness ball is a weighted ball with a similar diameter of a human’s shoulders (~ 13.7 inches) that are often used for rehabilitation and strength training. They play important roles in the field of sports medicine. Nonetheless, they shouldn’t be confused with the larger exercise ball (~ 36 inches in diameter). Medicine balls weight about 2–25 lb (1–11 kg), which are used effectively in ballistic training to increase explosive power in athletes in all sports. e.g. Throwing the medicine ball or jumping whilst holding it. Some medicine balls are up to 14 inches in diameter and weigh up to 14 lbs, or in the form of weighted basketballs.
There’s a legend that Hippocrates provided patients stuffed animal skins to toss around for “medicinal” purposes. Similar large balls were used in Persia in 1705. The term "medicine ball" dates back to at least 1876, in American Gymnasia and Academic Record, by Robert Jenkins Roberts, Jr.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_ball
An exercise ball / Swiss ball is a soft elastic ball with a diameter of about 35 - 85 cm (14 - 34 in) and filled with compressed air. The air pressure inside can be altered by removing a valve stem and either fill with air or let the ball deflate. They are often used in physical therapy, athletic training, exercise and weight training. It’s also known by other names such as balance ball, birth ball, body ball, ball, fitness ball, gym ball, gymnastic ball, physio ball, pilates ball, naval mine, Pezzi ball, stability ball, Swedish ball, therapy ball, or yoga ball.
The Swiss ball was invented in 1963 by an Italian plastics manufacturer named Aquilino Cosani, who perfected a process for moulding large puncture-resistant plastic balls. Those balls were known as "Pezzi balls”, which were first used in treatment programs for newborns and infants by a British physiotherapist working in Switzerland named Mary Quinton. Later, Dr. Susanne Klein-Vogelbach, the director at the Physical Therapy School in Basel, Switzerland, integrated the use of ball exercise as physical therapy for neuro-developmental treatment. Based on the concept of "functional kinetics”, Klein-Vogelbach advocated the use of ball techniques to treat adults with orthopaedic or medical problems. When American physical therapists began to use those techniques in North America after witnessing their benefits in Switzerland, they coined the term ‘Swiss ball’. From their development as physical therapy in a clinical setting, those exercises are now used in athletic training, as part of a general fitness routine and incorporation in alternative exercises such as yoga and Pilates. In 2012, Neil Whyte completed the record for the fastest time 10 Swiss balls have been jumped across at 8.31 seconds.The record for the farthest jump between two Swiss balls was also made by Neil at a distance of 2.3 meters in 2012.
Exercising on an exercise ball as opposed to exercising directly on a hard flat surface allows the body to respond to the instability of the ball to remain balanced. This recruits more muscle units, which strengthens the muscles over time to keep balance without the need to increase the total load. The core body muscles (abdominals and back muscles) are emphasised in these exercise ball fitness programs, which are greatly activated during exercises such as curl-up or push-up performed on an exercise ball. Studies have found that performing standard exercises, such as a push-up, on an unstable surface can be used to increase activation of core trunk stabilisers, and in turn provide increased trunk strength and greater resistance to injury, as well as yield a greater amount of electromyography (EMG) activity.
Because of these benefits, many fitness experts and some doctors recommend sitting on an exercise ball instead of an office chair in order to maintain proper posture and balance on the ball. However some studies failed to find any scientific evidence of those benefits occurring by just sitting without additional exercises. Other studies refute the use of a Swiss ball as a chair because of ergonomic or biochemical concerns. Women experiencing labour can use a large plastic ball, known as a "birth ball”, to help aid the descent of the foetal head into the pelvis. Other recommendations for women are sitting in an upright position in order to aid foetal positioning and maximise comfort, or sitting on the ball with arms placed on a bed, table or otherwise sturdy object for support and gently rock the hips.
(E) Other:
Elliptical Trainer:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treadmill
A treadmill is a device that people walk or run or climb on without displacement. They were introduced before the development of powered machines in order to harness the power of animals or humans to do work. These type of devices were often found in mills operated by a person or animal treading steps of a treadwheel to grind grain. In later times, treadmills were used as punishment devices for people sentenced to hard labour in prisons. The terms ‘treadmill’ and ‘treadwheel’ were used interchangeably for the power and punishment mechanisms. In recent times, they weren’t used to harness power, but rather as exercise machines for running or walking in 1 place. Instead of the user running the mill, the machine provided a moving platform with a wide conveyor belt driven by an electric motor or a flywheel. The process involved moving the belt to the rear, which required the user to walk or run at the belt’s speed. Thus, the speed of running may be controlled and measured. The more expensive, heavy-duty versions are motor-driven (usually by an electric motor), while the simpler, lighter, and less expensive versions (known as manual treadmills) passively resist the motion, moving only when walkers push the belt with their feet. According to Sports & Fitness Industry Association, treadmills continue to be the largest selling exercise equipment category by a considerable margin. As a result, the treadmill industry counts with hundreds of manufacturers worldwide.
The origins of the treadmill traces back to the 1st century AD, when the Ancient Romans used a treadwheel or polyspaston crane for manipulating heavy objects. The first consumer treadmill for use at home was developed by a mechanical engineer named William Staub. He developed his treadmill after reading the 1968 book, Aerobics, by Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper, which noted that individuals who ran for 8 minutes 4—5 times a week would be in better physical condition. He named his first treadmill the ‘PaceMaster 600’. Once finished, Staub delivered his prototype treadmill to Cooper, who found the machine's first customers, including sellers of fitness equipment. Then Staub began productions of the first home treadmills at his plant in Clifton, New Jersey, before moving production to Little Falls, New Jersey.
What are/were treadmills used for?
In antiquity, treadmills as power sources originated in 3 major designs. The 1st design involved a horizontal bar jutting out of a vertical shaft that rotated around a vertical axis, driven by an ox or other animal / human walking in a circle pushing the bar. The 2nd design was a vertical treadwheel powered through climbing in place instead of walking in circles, similar to a hamster wheel. The 3rd design also required climbing but used a sloped, moving platform instead. About 4000 years ago, treadmills as muscle-powered engines were invented with the purpose of lifting buckets of water. This same technology was later adapted to create rotary grain mills and the treadwheel crane, which helped pump water and power dough-kneading machines and bellows.
In 1818, the first punishment treadmills were installed by an English engineer named Sir William Cubitt, whose father was a miller. Noting idle prisoners at Bury St Edmunds gaol, he proposed using their muscle power to both cure their idleness and produce useful work. His treadmills for punishment usually rotated around a horizontal axis, requiring the user to step upwards, like walking up an endless staircase. Those punished walked around the outside of the wheel, whilst holding a horizontal handrail for stability. They remained in use until the latter half of 19th century, with newer treadmills designed as 20-ft long paddle wheels with 24 steps around a 6-foot cylinder. Several prisoners stood side-by-side on a wheel, and were forced to work 6+ hours a day, effectively climbing 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet (1,5 to 4 km). While the purpose was mainly punitive, the most infamous mill at Brixton Prison was installed in 1821. It used to grind grain to supplement an existing windmill, which Cubitt had previously installed nearby. It gained notoriety for the cruelty with which it was used, which then became a popular satirical metaphor for early-19th century prisons.
(iii) Exercise
On 17th June, 1913, the US of patent of treadmill “training machine” (#1,064,968) was issued. Invented by Dr. Robert Bruce and Wayne Quinton at the University of Washington in 1952, the forerunner of exercise treadmills was designed to diagnose heart and lung disease. Published in 1968, Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper’s research on the benefits of aerobic exercise provided a medical argument to support the commercial development of the home treadmill and exercise bike. Today, most treadmills are found at medical facilities (hospitals, rehabilitation centres, medical and physiotherapy clinics, institutes of higher education), sports clubs, Biomechanics Institute, orthopaedic shoe shops, running shops, Olympic training centres, universities, fire-training centres, NASA, test facilities and training rooms of police and army, gyms and even home users. Modern treadmill ergometers are mainly driven by electric motors, which activates a running table with a sliding plate. Before and after the race table, there are 2 shafts, with the running belt stretching between the shafts and the running deck. Safety standards for treadmills are the IEC EN 957-1 and IEC EN 957-6. For medical treadmills applicable norms, standards and guidelines are the Medical Device Directive (MDD), European Guideline 93/42 EEC, European Guideline 2007/47 EEC, IEC EN 60601-1, EN 62304, EN 14971 and the machinery directive 2006/42/EC.
When the subject is moving on the running deck, they adapt to the adjustable speed of the belt. The running deck is usually mounted on damped elements, it has shock absorbing characteristics. A lifting element helps raise the entire frame including treadmill running deck in order to simulate a pitch angle for uphill running. Some treadmills also have the reversing of a running belt in order to simulate downhill loads. Professional athletes prefer larger and stable treadmills with tables that are 150 cm long and 50 cm wide, set to a maximum speed of 20 km/h and maximum slope angle of 20%. Sprinters can run with some weight relief temporarily up to 45 km/h, Therefore they must run on a large deck of up to 300 cm long and 100 cm wide. A fall stop unit is required to prevent the subjects or patients physically exerting greater forces from falling. This unit is usually implemented by a safety arch on which a rope is attached to an electrical switch, and a harness prevents the subject from falling and shuts down the running belt.
Some offices have employees walk on treadmill desks while working on a computer or speaking on the phone. Some treatment centre have treadmills with built-in seats left and right for therapists, so they can move the legs of a stroke patient in order to simulate walking movements and learn to walk again. This type of therapy is called ‘manual locomotion therapy’. Oversized treadmills are used by cyclists riding up to 80 km/h, as well as wheelchair users. In special applications, with thick running belt for cross-country skiing and biathlon, athletes perform training and testing exercises with roller ski on a running deck of up to sizes of 450 x 300 cm.
Because the treadmill resembles a conveyor belt, horses are tested (especially in jockey racing) on a specially constructed treadmill, so do cars as well. They also exercise dogs accustomed to running on a conveyor, but it’s recommended to avoid tying the leashes to the treadmill. A variety of dog/pet and underwater pet treatment treadmills are available for both home and clinical use. However, a few key features of treadmills are designed for pet use include a longer running surface, open front and back entries and side rails in order to prevent the pet from falling off the treadmill. All are designed to be used with human supervision. Many veterinary and animal rehabilitation clinics also offer underwater treadmill therapy as part of their services provided to clients' pets.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of treadmills?
(a) Advantages
- Enables the user to set up an exercise regime that can be adhered to irrespective of the weather
- Cushioned tread provides slightly lower impact training than running on outdoor surfaces. However, most cushioned belts have been depreacted, out of use and cushioned replacement is almost impossible to locate. Nowadays, many treadmills have rubber or urethane deck elastomers (cushions), offering superior cushioning and durability than cushioned belts. Temporarily, banana shaped flexible decks were among the very best as far as cushioning that were priced at a midrange level. Now they aren’t being sold because of the increased manufacturing cost of making the flexible deck. Furthermore, cushioned belts have less durability than regular belts due to their construction out of weaker materials. For calorie burning, incline can be used to significantly reduce impact for a given rate of energy use.
- Incline settings allow consistent "uphill" training that the natural environment can’t offer.
- Rate settings train users to run at consistent pace.
- Contains programmes that simulate terrains, e.g. rolling hills, to provide accurate, programmed, exercise periods.
- Users can watch TV whilst using the machine thus preventing TV from being a sedentary activity.
- Users can track their progress such as distance, calories burned, and heart rate.
(b) Disadvantages
As a cardiovascular exercise:
- It develops poor running habits in some treadmill runners that become apparent when they return to outdoor running. Particularly, due to lack of wind resistance and trying to avoid kicking the motor covering with the front of the foot, runners tend to develop short, upright, bouncy gait.
- It imposes a strict pace on runners, providing an artificial feel to running, which causes imbalance during running.
- Treadmill running is non-specific to any sport, i.e., there is no competitive sport that actually utilises treadmill running. e.g. A competitive runner would be far better off running outdoors through space since it is more specific and realistic to his/her event.
As an indoor activity:
- Many users treadmills monotonous and boring after a period.
- Treadmills don’t stimulate psychologically satisfactions in runners, which they normally get t from running in new locations away from the distractions of home.
As a machine:
- Improper use can cause personal injury. If vulnerable children interact with a running treadmill belt, they risk severe friction burns that require multiple skin grafts and result in lasting disability. This scenario can be avoided by removing the safety key when the treadmill is not in use. Without the key, the treadmill belt will not activate
- It is costly to purchase and maintain in terms of electronics and repairs, compared to simply running outside.
- It takes up space in homes.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_bicycle
A stationary bicycle / exercise bicycle, exercise bike, spinning bike, or exercycle is an exercise equipment that includes a saddle, pedals, and handlebars. It’s usually a special-purpose exercise machine resembling a bicycle without wheels, though it’s possible to adapt an ordinary bicycle for stationary exercise by placing it on bicycle rollers or a trainer. Rollers and trainers are often used by racing cyclists to warm up before racing, or to train on their own machines indoors. The inventors of modern modern stationary bicycles date back to the end of the eighteenth century e.g. The Gymnasticon.
Some models have handlebars connected to the pedals, so that the upper body can be exercised along with the lower body. Most exercise bikes have a mechanism that applies resistance to the pedals as the intensity of the exercise increases. Resistance mechanisms include magnets, fans, and friction mechanisms. Other models allow the user to pedal backwards to exercise antagonist muscles, which aren’t recruited in forward pedalling. Exercise bicycles are typically manufactured using a crankshaft and bottom bracket, turning a flywheel with a belt or chain. The bearings on these moving parts wear with use, and inevitably require replacement. Specialised indoor bicycles use weighted flywheel at the front for indoor cycling exercises called ‘spinning’.
Exercise bikes are often used for exercise, to increase general fitness, for weight loss, and for training for cycle events. It has long been used for physical therapy because of the low-impact, safe, and effective cardiovascular exercise it provides. This minimises stress on joints and eliminates sporadic motions. However, according to a 2001 study, as with typical biking, extended use of a stationary bike is associated with decreased sexual function. Stationary bikes are also used for physical testing, i.e. as ergometers for measuring power, which is traditionally performed by imposing a certain level of resistance mechanically and/or measuring this, which gives a decent overview. Modern ergometers and even many consumer exercise bikes are fitted with electronic sensors and displays. Ergometers, such as CEVIS (Cycle Ergometer with Vibration Isolation and Stabilisation System), are used in space (e.g. in the ISS) to counter cardiovascular de-conditioning in the microgravity environment.
A gym, short for gymnasium, is an indoor location for gymnastics, athletics and gymnastic services. The word is directly derived from the ancient Greek gymnasium, which means "school for naked exercise”. It was used to designate a locality for the education of young men, including physical education (gymnastics, i.e. exercise), which was customarily performed naked, as well as bathing, and studies. Ancient Greeks considered physical education as important as cognitive learning, therefore most Greek gymnasia had libraries that could be utilised after relaxing in the baths.They are commonly found in athletic and fitness centres, and as activity and learning spaces in educational institutions. “Gym” is also slang for “fitness centre”, which is often an area for indoor recreation. Gymnasia apparatus such as barbells, parallel bars, jumping board, running path, tennis-balls, cricket field, fencing area, and so forth are used as exercises. In safe weather, outdoor locations are the most conducive to health. Gyms were popular in ancient Greece because their curricula included Gymnastica militaria or self-defense, gymnastica medica, or physical therapy to help the sick and injured, and gymnastica athletica for physical fitness and sports, from boxing to dancing. These gymnasia also taught wisdom and philosophy, where community gymnastic events were organised as part of the celebrations during various village festivals. In ancient Greece there was a phrase of contempt, "He can neither swim nor write." After a while, Olympic athletes began training in buildings specifically designed for them. Community sports never became as popular among ancient Romans as it had among the ancient Greeks, because gyms back in those days were used more as a preparation for military service or spectator sports. Therefore, the gymnastic art was forgotten during the Roman Empire. In the Dark Ages there were sword fighting tournaments and of chivalry, which began to be replaced by the sport of fencing after gunpowder was invented. Furthermore, there were schools of dagger fighting and wrestling and boxing. Then in the 18th century, Salzmann, German clergyman, opened a gym in Thuringia that taught bodily exercises, including running and swimming. Though the year is not known, Clias and Volker established the first gyms in London. In 1825, Doctor Beck, a German immigrant, established the first gymnasium in the United States. Upon opening of these new gyms, pupils began losing interest in the performing the same exercise, partly because of age, which prompted the inclusion of various exercises such as skating, dancing, and swimming. Some gym activities were performed by 6 to 8 year-olds while 16-year olds were considered mature enough for boxing and horseback riding. In Ancient Greece, the gymnasion (γυμνάσιον) was a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men. The latter meaning of intellectual education persisted in Greek, German and other languages to denote a certain type of school that provided secondary education, the gymnasium. In English, the meaning of physical education pertained in the word ‘gym’.
The first recorded gymnasiums date back to over 3000 years ago in ancient Persia, where they are known as zurkhaneh, areas that encouraged physical fitness. The larger Roman Baths often attached fitness facilities, and the baths were decorated with mosaics of local champions of sport. In Germany, gyms were an outgrowth of the Turnplatz, an outdoor space for gymnastics promoted by German educator Friedrich Jahn and the Turners, a 19th-century political and gymnastic movement. The first indoor gymnasium opened in Germany was probably built in Hesse in 1852 by Adolph Spiess, who was an enthusiast for boys' and girls' gymnastics in schools. Through worldwide colonisation, Great Britain expanded its national interest in sports and games to many countries. In the 1800s, programs were added to schools and college curricula that emphasised health, strength, and bodily measure. Sports drawn from European and British cultures thrived as college students and upper-class clubs financed competition. As a result, towns began building playgrounds that furthered interest in sports and physical activity. In the United States, the Turner movement thrived in the 19th and early 20th centuries, though the first Turners group formed in London in 1848. The Turners built gymnasia in several cities like Cincinnati and St Louis home to large German American demographics, which were then utilised by many young and old. e.g. Lou Gehrig frequently attended the Turner Gym in New York City with his father. In 1851, the YMCA first organised in Boston and a smaller branch opened in Rangasville in the following year. In 1862, about 200 YMCAs were built across the country, most of which provided gymnasia for exercise, games, and social interaction. In the 1920s, Nicolas Isarange coined the idea of building large numbers of public high schools with a gymnasium. Over the course of the 20th century, gymnasia have been re-conceptualised to accommodate the popular team and individual games and sports that have supplanted gymnastics in the school curriculum. Today, gymnasia are commonplace in the United States, virtually in all American colleges and high schools, and almost all middle schools and elementary schools. These facilities are used for physical education, intramural sports, and school gatherings. The number of gyms in the USA has more than doubled since the late 1980s.
What are the different types of exercises?
— Isolation exercise = This exercise involves movement being restricted to 1 joint only. e.g. Leg extensions is an isolation exercise for the quadriceps. Specialised types of equipment are used to ensure that other muscle groups are only minimally involved in order to help the individual maintain a stable posture and movement occurs only around 1 joint. Most isolation exercises involve machines rather than dumbbells and barbells (free weights), though free weights can be used when combined with special positions and joint bracing.
— Compound exercise = This exercise works several muscle groups at once, including movement around two or more joints. e.g. Movements in the leg press occurs around the hip, knee and ankle joints. It’s primarily used to develop the quadriceps, as well as s the hamstrings, glutes and calves. Compound exercises are generally similar to the ways that people naturally push, pull and lift objects, whereas isolation exercises often feel unnatural. Compound exercises build the basic strength required to perform everyday pushing, pulling and lifting activities, whereas isolation exercises are useful for "rounding out" a routine, by directly exercising muscle groups that cannot be fully exercised in the compound exercises. Depending on the individual’s goals, compounds exercises are useful to those who seek to increase their performance in sport, while isolation exercises are useful for strengthening particular muscles that hold the athlete back. Similarly, a powerlifter focuses on specific compound exercises often performed at powerlifting exercises. However, those who seek to improve the look of their body without necessarily maximising their strength gains like bodybuilders apply more emphasis on isolation exercises. Nonetheless, both types of athletes generally make use of both compound and isolation exercises.
— Free Weights = They include dumbbells, barbells, medicine balls, sandbells, and kettlebells. Because they don’t constrain users to specific, fixed movements, users require effort from their stabiliser muscles. There are debates whether t free weight exercises are superior for precisely this reason. e.g. Free weight exercises are recommended for golf players, since since golf is a unilateral exercise that can break body balances, requiring exercises to keep the balance in muscles. Some free weight exercises can be performed while sitting or lying on an exercise ball.
— Weight Machines = There are a number of weight machines that are commonly found in neighbourhood gyms. e.g. Smith machine and the cable machine. There are also exercise-specific weight machines such as the leg press. A multi-gym includes a variety of exercise-specific mechanisms in one apparatus. One limitation of many free weight exercises and exercise machines is that the muscle is working maximally against gravity during only a small portion of the lift. Some exercise-specific machines feature an oval cam (first introduced by Nautilus) that varies the resistance. Therefore the resistance, and the muscle force required, remains constant throughout the full range of motion of the exercise.
— Push-Pull Workout = This method arranges a weight training routine so that exercises alternate between push motions and pull motions. A push–pull superset consists of 2 complementary segments (1 pull/1 push) done back-to-back. e.g. Bench press (push) / Bent-over row (pull). Another push–pull technique is to arrange workout routines so that 1 day involves only push (usually chest, shoulders and triceps) exercises, and an alternate day only involves pull (usually back and biceps) exercises so the body can get adequate rest.
— Isotonic exercises = The term ‘isotonic’ combine the prefix iso- (meaning "same") with tonic (“strength”). These exercises involve force applied to the muscle remaining unchanged (while the length of the muscle changes). Weight training exercises are primarily isotonic, because the force produced by the muscle to push or pull weighted objects doesn’t change, although in practice the force produced does decrease as muscles fatigue. Any object can be used for weight training, but dumbbells, barbells, and other specialised equipment are often used because they can be adjusted to specific weights and are easily gripped. Many exercises are not strictly isotonic because the force on the muscle varies as the joint moves through its range of motion. Movements can become easier or harder depending on the angle of muscular force relative to gravity. e.g. A standard biceps curl becomes easier to perform as the hand approaches the shoulder as more of the load is taken by the structure of the elbow.
— Plyometric exercises = The term ‘plyometric’ combine the prefix plio- ("more") with metric (“distance”). These exercises involve stretching the length of the muscle, which then contracts rapidly to increase the power output of a muscle. Plyometrics exploit the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles to enhance the myotatic (stretch) reflex. This involves rapid alternation of lengthening and shortening of muscle fibres against resistance, which often involves a weighted object such as a medicine ball or sandbag, as well as the body itself in jumping exercises or the body with a weight vest that allows movement. Furthermore, plyometrics develops explosive speed and focuses on maximal power instead of maximal strength by compressing the force of muscular contraction into as short a period as possible. This improves the effectiveness of a boxer’s punch, or increases the vertical jumping ability of a basketball player. However, care are must be taken when performing plyometric exercises because they inflict greater stress upon the involved joints and tendons than other forms of exercise.
What are the health benefits of weight training?
The benefits of weight training include:
— Increased strength, muscle mass, endurance, bone and bone mineral density, insulin sensitivity, GLUT 4 density & HDL cholesterol
— Improved cardiovascular health and appearance
— Decreased body fat, blood pressure, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides
As muscle mass increases, human body’s basal metabolic rate increases. This promotes long-term fat loss and helps dieters avoid yo-yo dieting. Furthermore, intense workouts elevate metabolism for several hours following the workout, which also promotes fat loss.
The functional benefits of weight training include stronger muscles improving posture, providing better support for joints, and reducing the risk of injury from everyday activities. Older participants can prevent some of the loss of muscle tissue that normally accompanies ageing, as well as regain some functional strength and reduce frailty, which helps avoid some types of physical disability. Weight-bearing exercise also helps to prevent osteoporosis, which are confirmed in students that investigated people in their 80s and 90s exercising a daily basis.
For many people currently in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles helps contribute to optimising recovery. For people with such a health condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional, such as a physiotherapist. Many competitors conduct sport-specific training routines in order to strengthen muscles, hence improve their performance in a variety of spaces. These often specify that the speed of muscle contraction during the workout has to be identical to that of a particular sport. They also often include variations to both free weight and machine movements that are uncommon for traditional weightlifting. Although weight training stimulates the cardiovascular system, based on their observation of maximal oxygen intake, many exercise physiologists argue that aerobics training is an effective cardiovascular stimulus. Central catheter monitoring during resistance training reveals increased cardiac output, which suggests strong potential for strength training on cardiovascular exercise. However, a 2007 meta-analysis found that, though aerobic training is an effective therapy for heart failure patients, combined aerobic and strength training is ineffective. It stated ”the favourable anti-remodeling role of aerobic exercise was not confirmed when this mode of exercise was combined with strength training. A known side-effect of intense exercise is increased levels of Dopamine, Serotonin and Noradrenaline, which helps improve mood and counter feelings of depression. Weight training benefits dieters as it inhibits lean body mass loss (as opposed to fat loss) when under a caloric deficit, as well as strengthens bones, which then helps prevent bone loss and osteoporosis. By increasing muscular strength and improving balance, weight training can also reduce falls experienced by elderly peopleI. A 2017 meta analysis found that it was effective in improving cognitive performance in older adults.
What are other types of strength training?
Despite their similarities, weight training and bodybuilding have different objectives. Bodybuilders use weight training to develop their muscles for size, shape, and symmetry regardless of any increase in strength for competition in bodybuilding contests. They train to maximise their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, many weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat far below normal. Most of the existing weight training principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs originated from the bodybuilding community. Nowadays, weight training allows tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights, as well as allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, hence attain specific goals. However, not all bodybuilding is undertaken to compete in bodybuilding contests. In fact, the vast majority of bodybuilders never compete, but bodybuild for their own personal reasons.
— Complex training:
This type of weight training typically combines with plyometric exercises in an alternating sequence. It’s ideal for both weight training and plyometric exercises to move through similar ranges of movement i.e. a back squat at 85-95% 1RM followed by a vertical jump. One advantage is that it intensely activates the nervous system and increases muscle fibre recruitment from the weight lifting exercise to be utilised in the subsequent plyometric exercise. This improves the power with which it can be performed. Over a certain period of training, the athlete’s ability to apply to power is enhanced. A specific sports action may be a reasonable replacement for plyometric exercise. The aim is to utilise the neural and muscular activation from the heavy lift in the sports specific action, in order to be able to perform it more powerfully. This enhances the athlete's ability to perform that sports-specific action more powerfully, without requiring a precursory heavy lift.
— Ballistic training:
This type of weight training incorporates weight training that maximises the acceleration phase of the movement and minimises the deceleration phase, which increases the power of the movement overall. e.g. Throwing a weight or jumping whilst holding a weight.
— Contrast loading:
This exercise involves alternating heavy and light loads. Considered as sets, the heavy load is performed at about 85-95% 1 repetition max, while the light load should be considerably lighter at about 30-60% 1RM. It’s recommended that both sets are performed quickly with the lighter set being performed as fast as possible. Ensure your joints aren’t locked as this inhibits muscle fibre recruitment and reduces the speed at which the exercise can be performed. The lighter set may be a loaded plyometric exercise such as loaded squat jumps or jumps with a trap bar. Like complex training, contrast loading relies upon the enhanced activation of the nervous system and increased muscle fibre recruitment from the heavy set, to allow the lighter set to be performed more powerfully. Such a physiological effect is commonly referred to as post-activation potentiation (PAP) effect. The PAP effect describes a sequence of lifting a light weight first, and then lifting a heavy weight, and then lifting the same light weight again, you will notice the light weight will feel lighter the second time you lift it. This occurs as a result of the heavy lift being utilised in the subsequent lighter lift, thus making the weight feel lighter and allowing the lift to be performed more powerfully.
— Isometric training:
Isometric exercise provides a maximum amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle, or muscles pitted against one another. This maximum force maximally strengthens the muscles over all of the joint angles at which the isometric exercise occurs. The risk of injury in isometric exercise (no weights) is much less than weight training and asymmetric training of identical opposing muscles. In contrast, weight training strengthens muscles throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, but only maximally at one angle. This causes a lesser increase in physical strength at other angles from the initial through terminating joint angle as compared with isometric exercise.
What are the names of weight / strength training exercises every fitness fanatic perform repetitively? Below is a comprehensive list of all well-known exercises ordered according to muscle targets:
LOWER BODY:
(A) Quadriceps (Front of Thigh)
i. Squat = This exercise is performed by squatting down with a weight held across the upper back under the neck and then standing up straight again. It’s a compound exercise involving the glutes (buttocks) and, to a lesser extent, hamstrings, calves, and the lower back. You can use lifting belts if you want support on your lower back. The freeweight squat is one of 'The Big Three' powerlifting exercises. Squats can be performed using only your own body weight. If you want to perform weighted squats, then barbells are recommended, whereas dumbbells, kettlebells and other weighted objects are optional. Under any circumstance if you feel discomfort, then it’s recommended you use a Smith machine or hack squat machine. Common variations include:
— Front squats = The weight is held across the upper chest
— Box squats = You rest briefly on a box or bench at the bottom of the movement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aclHkVaku9U
ii. Leg Press = This exercise is performed while seated by pushing a weight away from your body with the feet. It’s a compound exercise involving the glutes and, to a lesser extent, the hamstrings and the calves. Note that overloading the leg press machine can result in serious injury if the sled moves uncontrollably towards you i.e. the trainer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IZxyjW7MPJQ
iii. Lunge = This refers to any position of the human body where one leg is positioned forward with knee bent and foot flat on the ground while the other leg is positioned behind. This exercise is used by athletes in cross-training for sports, by weight-trainers as a fitness exercise, and by yogis as part of an asana regimen.
It strengthens, sculpts and builds several muscles/muscle groups, including the quadriceps (thighs), the gluteus maximus (buttocks) and hamstrings. Longer lunges emphasises the use of your gluteals, while shorter lunges emphasises the quadriceps. You can perform this exercise using your bodyweight alone. If you want to increase the difficulty, you can use either dumbbells or kettlebells held in each hand, or a barbell held atop the neck and shoulders. If you have issues with grip strength, then barbell lunges are preferred over dumbbell lunges. One variation includes plyometric lunges (or split squat jumps) can be performed by jumping explosively between lunge positions. With resistance training it's not recommended to do forward lunges in place, because of the shear force it places on the rear knee once the front leg no longer provides support.
The practice of yoga often includes any number of lunge-related asanas, the names of which vary in different yoga traditions. Examples of Sanskrit names include:
- Anjaneyasana (Anjaneya’s pose)
- Ashwa Sanchalanasana or Aekpaadprasarnaasana (equestrian pose)
- Utthita Ashwa Sanchalanasana (extended equestrian pose)
- Ardha Mandalasana (half circle pose).
Depending on the lineage and circumstances, the back knee can be down or up, the toes may be tucked or untucked, and the arms may be in any number of positions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOVaHwm-Q6U
iv. (Romanian) Deadlift = This exercise is performed by squatting down and lifting a weight off the floor with your hand until standing up straight again. Your grip on the weight can be face down or opposing with one hand down and one hand up, to prevent dropping. But face up grips aren’t recommended because this puts excess stress on the inner arms. This compound exercise involves the glutes, lower back, lats, trapezius (neck) and, to a lesser extent, the hamstring cacas and the calves. Lifting belts are recommended if you want support on your lower back. You can use dumbbells, barbellm trapbar or Smith machine to perform this exercise. Common variants include:
— Sumo deadlift = A wider stance to emphasise the inner thighs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XynUSDVyd6Q
— Stiff-legged deadlift = Emphasises hamstrings
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uDiW5--rAE
— Straight-legged deadlift = Emphasises lower back
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhzaYGSXc6M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SHsk9AzdjA
v. Leg Extension = This exercise is performed while seated by raising a weight out in front of the body with the feet. This isolation exercise only works the quadriceps, and overtraining this muscle can cause patellar tendinitis. Extending the leg muscles serves to strengthen the muscles around the knees. You can use either a dumbbell, a cable machine or a leg extension machine.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyvSfVjQeL0
vi. Wall Sit = Also known as a static squat, this exercise is performed by placing one's back against a wall with feet shoulder width apart, and lowering the hips until your knees and hips are both at right angles to the wall. The objective is to steady that position for long as possible. This exercise aims to strengthen your quadriceps. Nevertheless, this exercise should be avoided if you have knee problems because the knees bear most of the load, especially when they are held at right angles (90 degrees).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XULOKw4E4P4
(B) Hamstrings (Back of Legs)
i. Leg Curl = This exercise is performed while lying face down on a bench, by raising a weight with the feet towards the buttocks. This isolation exercise emphasises your hamstrings. You can use a dumbbell, a cable machine or a leg curl machine to perform this exercise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Tq3QdYUuHs
ii. Stiff-Legged Deadlift = This variation of the deadlift exercise specifically targets the posterior chain. Your knees hardly move in order to activate your hamstrings, glutes, and spinal erectors. Initially the bar is on the floor and you would position yourself like a normal deadlift but your knees are at a 160° angle instead on 135° on the conventional deadlift.
iii. Snatch = This exercise is 1 of 2 current olympic weightlifting events (the other being the clean and jerk). You lift a barbell from the platform to locked arms overhead in a smooth continuous movement. You pull the barbell as high as you can manage (typically to mid [chest] height) (the pull) at which point the barbell is flipped overhead. If you’re using relatively light weights (as in the "power snatch”) locking your arms may not require re-bending yours knees. However, as performed in contests, the weight is always heavy enough to demand you to receive the bar in a squatting position, while simultaneously flipping the weight so it moves in an arc directly overhead to locked arms. When you’re secure in this position, you rise (overhead squat), completing the lift.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UBc5N_-xdqo
(C) Calves
i. Standing Calf Raise = This exercise is performed by plantarflexing the feet to lift the body. If you’re using a weight, then it rests upon your shoulders, or held in your hand(s). This isolation exercise emphasises your calves, particularly your Gastrocnemius muscles, as well as your Soleus muscle. To perform this exercise, you can use your own body weight, dumbbells, smartbells, doorbells, cowbells, bell peppers, barbell, Smith machine or standing calf raise machine. Common variants of this exercise include:
— One leg = The other is held off the ground.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ORT4oJ_R8Qs
— Donkey Calf Raise = You’re bent over with a weight or machine pad on the lower back.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r30EoMPSNns
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpkOYrQ4uJQ
ii. Seated Calf Raise = This exercise is performing by flexing your feet to lift a weight held on your knees. This isolation exercise emphasises your calves, especially your soleus muscle. You can use a barbell, seated calf raise machine or a leg press machine to perform this exercise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xz7sqxaJ-Ck
(D) Pelvis
Vaginal weightlifting involves strength training by contracting your pelvic floor muscles to lift weights after inserting an attachment in the vagina.
UPPER BODY:
(E) Pectorals (Chest)
i. (Dumbbell) Bench Press = This exercise is performed while lying face up on a bench, by pushing a weight away from the chest. This compound exercise involves your triceps, front deltoids, upper and lower back muscles, and traps. It is regarded as the king of all upper body exercises and is one of the most popular chest exercises in the world. Furthermore, it is the final exercise in 'The big 3’. You can use dumbbells, barbell, Smith machine or bench press machine to perform this exercise. Major variants include:
— Incline = This emphasises your upper pectorals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DbFgADa2PL8
— Decline = This emphasises your lower pectorals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfyQBUKR8SE
— Narrow Grip = This emphasises your triceps.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEF0bv2FW94
— Push-Up = Starting face down, you push your own body weight upwards and then downwards.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qR1IxZDX8jQ
— Vertical / Horizontal Dips = Vertical dips require the use of parallel dip bars whilst horizontal dips require 2 benches with your arms placed on the near bench and your feet placed on the far bench. Then you drop your buttocks to the floor and push back upwards.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wjUmnZH528Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rT7DgCr-3pg
ii. Chest Fly = This exercise is performed while lying face up on a bench or standing up, with your arms outspread holding weights. Then you ou bring both of your arms together above the chest. This compound exercise involves your pectorals, deltoids, triceps and forearms. You can use dumbbells, cable machine or "pec deck" machine to perform this exercise. Common variants include:
— Incline = This emphasises your upper pectorals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bDaIL_zKbGs
— Decline = This emphasises your lower pectorals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TR4FdOs_7PY
— Cable Crossovers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UE9JYMkqDzA
— Dips
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHyA_1TXjl8
— Machine Fly
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3CbJYS1Aoo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eozdVDA78K0
(F) Lats & Trapezius (Mid-Back)
i. Pulldown = This exercise is performed while seated by pulling a wide bar down towards the upper chest or behind the neck. This compound exercise involves your lats, biceps, forearms, and the rear deltoids. You can use a cable machine or pulldown machine to perform this exercise. Common variants include:
— Chin-Up / Pullup = This utilises your body weight while hanging from a high bar.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfhT0OSUU0w
— Close Grip = This emphasises your lower lats.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=neP32qCyPbQ
— Reverse Grip = This emphasises your biceps.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7PhvyukQ4Sw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JEb-dwU3VF4
ii. Pull-up = This exercise is performed by hanging from a chin-up bar above head height with the palms facing forward (supinated) and pulling the body up so the chin reaches or passes the bar. This exercise involves your lats, biceps, forearms, traps, and the rear deltoids.
— Chin-Up = This exercise requires your palms to face backwards and emphasises your biceps and a wide grip pull-up places more emphasis on the lats. If you’re a beginner of the chin-up, it’s recommended you use a chin-up machine with counterweights to assist in your lift.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_71FpEaq-fQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFzrFHqszQM
iii. Bent-over Row = This exercise is performed while leaning over, holding a weight hanging down in 1 hand or both hands, and then pulling it up towards the abdomen. This compound exercise involves yours lats, biceps, forearms, traps, and the rear deltoids. Lifting belts are recommended for support of your lower back or torso. You can use a dumbbell, barbell, Smith machine or T-bar machine to perform this exercise. A major variant includes cable row, which uses a cable machine while seated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TeUzJmU25Rc
iv. Muscle-Up = This exercise is an advanced strength training exercise in the domain of calisthenics. This routine combines a radial pull-up followed by a dip, though variations exist for the rings as well as the bar nonetheless. It begins with the arms extended above your head, gripping a hold in the overhand pull-up position. The hold is usually on a chin-up bar or gymnastic rings. You then use your arms to explosively pull your body up in a radial pull-up, with greater speed than a regular pull-up. When the bar approaches your upper chest, swiftly flex your wrists bringing your forearms above the bar. Then lean your body forward, and straighten your elbows by activating your triceps. Complete the routine by fully straightening your arms and levelling your waist with the bar. To dismount, bend your arms at your elbow, lowering your body to the floor, and the exercise can be repeated as described above. Because muscle-ups are a relatively advanced exercise, it’s recommended you first learn with an assistive kip. That way your legs can swing (kip) up and provide momentum to assist in the explosive upward force needed to ascend above the bar. You will notice that more advanced athletes can perform a strict variation of the muscle-up which is done slowly without any kip. This variation begins with a still dead hang and relies on isometric muscle contraction to ascend above the bar in a slow, controlled fashion.
If you’re on the bar, a closed pull-up grip involves the thumb on the opposite side of the bar from the rest of the fingers. If you’re using gymnastic rings, an advanced position known as the "false grip" must be used in order to transition smoothly from the pull-up to the dip.
True to its name, the muscle-up exercise targets a large amount of muscle groupings in the back, shoulders, and the arms. Major pull-up power originates from the latissimus dorsi muscle of the back and the biceps. Once you’re over the bar, the triceps provide the bulk of the power for the final dipping motion. In 2018, Maxim Trukhonovets (Belarus) broke the world record for the most consecutive bar muscle-ups in a minute with 26. In the same year, Lee Wade Turner (UK) broke the world record for the most consecutive ring muscle-ups in a minute with 14.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lwZZmlkv3M
v. Seated Row = This exercise strengthens the muscles that draw the rower's arms toward the body (i.e. latissimus dorsi) and retract the scapulae (i.e. trapezius and rhomboids) and those that support the spine (i.e. erector spinae). If you’re on a rowing machine, you exercise the muscles that extend and support the legs (i.e. quadriceps and thigh muscles). The abdominal and lower back muscles is always used in order to support the body and prevent back injury. Many other weight-assisted gym exercises mimic the movement of rowing, such as the deadlift, high pull and the bent-over row. An effective off-season training programme combines both erg pieces and weight-assisted movements similar to rowing. This emphasises the aim of improving endurance under high tension rather than maximum strength.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQNrFHEMhI4
vi. Shoulder Shrug = This weight training exercise emphasises your upper trapezius muscles. It involves you standing erect, positioning your hands about shoulder width apart. Then you raise your shoulders as high as possible, before lowering them. Ensure your elbows are kept straight and body movement is minimised. The exercise doesn’t have as large a range of motion as in a normal shrug performed for active flexibility. It is usually considered good form if the slope of the shoulders is horizontal in the elevated position.
You may use a barbell, dumbbells or a Smith machine for resistance and have a overhand, inside, outside, underhand or mixed grip. If you’re using a barbell, either hold it in front of your thighs, rest it on your quadriceps, or behind, rest it on your hamstrings. This excludes inside and outside grips. You can also use 1 or 2 dumbbells, kettlebells or resistance bands together or opposite one another. A trapbar is another option, which necessitates an inside grip. If you’re using a standing calf machine, you can execute the shrugging movement by resting the pads on your shoulders and try to raise your shoulders as high as possible.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJRVVxmytaM
vii. Supine (Inverted) Row = This weight training exercise primarily emphasises the muscles of your lower back especially the trapezius and latissimus dorsi, as well as the biceps acting as a secondary muscle group. This exercise is normally carried out in 3 - 5 sets, but repetitions depond the type of training you use to make your required gains.
This exercise involves you initially lying flat on the ground under a fixed bar such as a Smith machine set at chest height. You then hold the bar with an overhand grip, straight arms, straight body, upper body that hang with the heels on the ground close together. Then you pull your chest towards the bar until it touches, before returning to the starting position under control. When you’re in good form, it indicates your body is kept straight throughout the movement. Your chin should remain tucked during the the motion, which keeps the cervical portion of your spine lined up with the rest of your body. You can adjust the height of the bar to change the difficulty of this exercise. The lower the bar is, the more difficult the movement becomes and vice versa.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ztXsfHbbJU
(G) Deltoids (Shoulders)
i. Upright Row = This exercise is performed while standing, holding a weight hanging down in the hands, then lifting it straight up to your collarbone. This compound exercise involves your shoulders, trapezius, upper back, forearms, triceps, and the biceps. A narrower grip would exercise your trapezius muscles more. You can use dumbbells, barbell, Smith machine or cable machine to perform this exercise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jaAV-rD45I0
ii. Shoulder Press = This exercise is performed while seated, or standing by lowering a weight held above the head to just above the shoulders, and then raising it again. It can be performed with both arms, or one arm at a time. This compound exercise involves your deltoids, trapezius and triceps. A major variant include the 360 degree shoulder press, which involves rotating your wrists while weights are lifted, then lowering the weights in front of the head before being rotated back to the first position.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEwKCR5JCog
iii. Military Press = This exercise is similar to the shoulder press but is performed while standing with the feet together. It is named “military” because the position is similar to the “at attention” position used in most militaries. Unlike the seated shoulder press, the military press involves the majority of the muscles of the core as stabilisers to keep your body rigid and upright, and is thus a more effective compound exercise. You can use dumbbells, kettlebells, barbell, Smith machine or shoulder press machine to perform this exercise. A major variant includes the Arnold Press (named after Arnold Schwarzeneggar), which involves raising dumbbells while rotating the palms outwards.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yjwXTZQDDI
iv. Lateral Raise / Shoulder Fly = This exercise is performed while standing or seated, with your hands hanging down holding weights, then lifting them out to the sides until just below the level of the shoulders. A slight variation in the lifts hits your deltoids even harder, while moving upwards, just turning your hands slightly downwards, keeping your last finger higher than the thumb. This isolation exercise emphasises your deltoids, as well as forearms and traps. You can use dumbbells, cable machine or lateral raise machine to perform this exercise. Major variants include:
— Front Raise = This emphasises your front deltoids.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-t7fuZ0KhDA
— Bent-Over = This emphasises your rear deltoids.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttvfGg9d76c
— 180 Degrees Lateral Raise = You hold the weights slightly in front of the body and lift them over your head in a circular motion.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttvfGg9d76c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VcKaXpzqRo
v. Head stand into Handstand Push-Up = The head stand is an inversion posture of standing your head down. This technique is used in different settings such as yoga, breakdancing, acrobatics and beginner gymnastics. The yoga posture of symmetrical yoga headstands demonstrate a balanced and symmetrical pattern from all perspectives, even though it isn’t always in a legs-vertical position. Conversely, asymmetrical yoga headstands doesn’t require your legs and torso to be completely vertical.
The handstand push-up (press-up) / Vertical (Inverted) push-up / “Commandos” is a type of push-up exercise usually performed free-standing and held in the air, where you position your body into a handstand. If you don’t have both adequate balance and strength, your feet are either placed against a wall, held by a partner, or secured in some other way from falling. This exercise requires significant strength, balance and control if performed free-standing. The movement can be viewed as a bodyweight exercise similar to the military press, while the regular push-up is similar to bench press. This exercise increases the load on the triceps brachii muscles significantly, because the arms is tasked to hold almost 100% of the body's weight. Load is also shifted from the Pectoralis Major muscle and to the Anterior Deltoids and Lateral Deltoids due to the shoulders abducting while externally rotated, rather than transversely flexing. The upper fibres of the Trapezius are also involved in shoulder elevation. When performing free-standing handstand pushups, both the core muscles and hand muscles are involved to maintain balance preventing you from falling over back, forward, or to either side, and to maintain posture. This makes it a much stronger exercise for the wrist flexors, core and legs.
Due to the difficulty of this exercise, it’s recommended to begin training with simpler, related movements like pushups. Possible methods of preparing without equipment (i.e. bodyweight exercises) include maintaining a static handstand position, performing with a reduced range of motion, or performing only the eccentric portion of the movement. You can choose to prepare with weightlifting in order to strengthen the muscles involved, if you feel inadequately balanced or understrength hence unable to support your own bodyweight on your hands. Once you feel confident in pressing your bodyweight, you will have developed sufficient strength to do a handstand push up. Next you can learn how to balance and exert yourself while inverted.
You can choose to increase your range of motion of the handstand pushup by placing your hands on objects elevated from the floor, such as boxes or chairs, parallettes, or gymnastic rings (for an advanced difficulty). This lowers your head below the level of the palms, which greatly increases the difficulty of the movement. If you want to push your physical boundaries, you can increase the difficulty by adding further resistance, either by attaching weights to your torso, such as a weighted vest, attached to the legs, or resistance bands. However caution must be taken to ensure your body isn’t suspended in an upside-down position for very long periods of time. This is because the human body lacks a design for forcing back blood that's running to the head when upside down. This important blood flow is intended by force of gravity to take care of itself. While there isn’t proof for having small bouts of body inversion, people with pre-existing conditions could worsen matters and potentially increase the risk of stroke and pulmonary oedema.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcX_jMfjQyo
vi. Rear Deltoid Raise = This weight training isolation exercise emphasises the posterior deltoid muscles. The movement is primarily limited to the 2 shoulder joints: Glenohumeral Joint and the Scapulothoracic Joint. Scapular movement will produce movement in the Sternoclavicular Joint and Acromioclavicular Joint. If the elbow bends during the extension exercises, it gravitates into a rowing motion. Transverse plane movements for the posterior deltoid muscles are often referred to as either rear deltoid fly, reverse fly, rear lateral raise, bent-over lateral raises or other variations. Other muscles involved in this exercise include the 2 lateral rotators of the Rotator Cuff: the Infraspinatus and Teres minor, as well as the lats and middle deltoids depending how the shoulder is rotated.
This exercise involves you attaining a prone rib cage position. Initially, you either stand on both feet and bend over, or lay face-down on a bench with your arms hanging straight down. It’s recommended to lay flat, though slight inclines are also optional. Next, bring your arms to the side away your body at a 90 degree angle. While leverage is most difficult with fully extended elbows, a slight elbow bend is useful as it allows you to maintain awareness of this. You can use 2 dumbbells to add resistance to the weight of your arms, though it’s mostly a joint isolation movement of the shoulder. When you’re performing transverse lifts, the scapulae articulate and adduct/retract as you lift the weights, then abduct/protract as you lower the weights. You can retract your scapulae and maintain that position as opposed to letting them protract, in order to increase the gain in the posterior deltoid. Your Rhomboid and Trapezius muscles help retract your scapulae.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J45NrrYB5ms
— Transverse Abduction = This variation involves your forearm having a neutral grip with the back of the hand facing outward (laterally), and turning to face away from the ground as you raise your arm. Your palms should face inward, moving to face towards the ground as you raise your arms. Due to the external (lateral) rotation, you’re shifting work forward and the lateral head of the deltoid assist your lateral rotators in transverse abduction. Your arms’ orientation relative to the ground is identical to the “shoulder fly” which focuses mainly at the lateral deltoid. The difference is that the angle of the torso changes, and the change in the shoulder's rotation and angle of movement relative to the body. This means the lateral head acts as a synergist rather than the prime mover.
Due to the lateral rotation, your elbows have to point inferior towards your hips throughout the movement, as opposed to pointing outward/upward as they do in transverse extension. Due to the angle of lateral force exerted on the outside of the elbow joint, ligaments are involved to stabilise and prevent deformation of the elbow joint, much as medial forces on the inside of the joint are involved in transverse adduction (chest fly variations). If you don’t lock your elbow, your lateral rotators (Posterior Deltoid, Infraspinatus, Teres Minor) must be involved in order to prevent internal (medial) rotation. The more your elbow is bent, the more leverage gravity has to pull your hand down and turn into a transverse extension angle. Having a bent elbow allows you to lift more weight, shifting the work of transverse abduction more heavily onto the lateral head of the deltoid as your prime movers work to prevent internal rotation.
http://www.kingofthegym.com/dumbbell-rear-deltoid-raise/
— Transverse Extension = This variation involves your forearm having a neutral grip with the back of your hand being superior and your hand being inferior, whilst your elbows are pointing towards your scapulae. Your Latissimus Dorsi muscles aid your lateral rotators in this exercise, as well as your Anconeus and Triceps Brachii muscles isometrically straightening your elbow. If you’re directing focus on your rear deltoid when lifting the weights, it’s imperative to keep the elbows away from the body and avoid torso movement to ensure ideal isolation. Your posterior fibres are usually undertrained, hence you might not require weights at first. A compound variation of this exercise is called the “bent over row” performed with a wider overhang grip shifting your elbows outwards, as opposed to the elbows-in lat-targeting variation. This is also referred to as a "rear delt row" as opposed to a “raise". Bodyweight / Supine Rows (or "Australian Pullups”) are also performed with a wide overhand grip to target the rear delts, which requires less work by the lower back and legs to stabilise.
This variation is most challenging to execute when the muscle is maximally contracted, forcing both arms to be worked out at once. Both arms work unilaterally in order to emphasise contraction in a stretched position using a weight. This means you rotate the side working toward the ceiling and lying on the opposite side. Resistance reaches its maximum when your humerus is parallel to the ground. If you want to attain a similar effect, you can perform a cable crossover variation to the rear lateral raise which allows the angle to be done on both sides simultaneously and without lying on your side, though it may be uncomfortable.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1UoIkF6IT9s
— Hyperextension form = This variation involves hyperextending your glenohumeral joint, which also targets your posterior deltoid. In this case, your lat doesn’t act as an extensor, so your posterior deltoid and long head of the triceps performs the hyperextension role. It exerts a limited range of motion of up to 45 degrees hyperextension. It is also a a static-active stretch for the anterior deltoid and biceps. A compound variation is a behind the back row, which is performed with a barbell.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U8cKIE6heVI
vii. Front Raise = This weight training isolation exercise isolates shoulder flexion that emphasises the anterior deltoid, as well as the Serratus Anterior, Biceps Brachii, and clavicular portions of the Pectoralis Major. This exercise is usually carried out in 3 - 5 sets during a shoulder workout. The number of repetitions you perform depends on your training program and goals. Executing this exercise involves you standing with your feet shoulder width apart and weights or resistance handles held by your side with a pronated (overhand) grip. Then you move your arms upwards in front of your body until it’s level with your eyes and your elbows are slightly bent. This isolates the anterior deltoid muscle (front of the shoulder) and requires your anterior deltoid to lift the weight. During the lifting movement, ensure your body is immotile so your anterior deltoid is fully utilised. If you have trouble lifting the weight standing still, this indicates the weight is too heavy and you must change to a lighter weight. It’s crucial to slightly bend your elbows when lifting because having locked elbows will stress out the elbow joint causing serious injury. A neutral grip, similar to that used in the hammer curl, can also be used. With this variation, the weight is again raised to eye level, but out to a 45 degree angle from the front of the body. This is preferred if you’re carrying a shoulder injury, particularly those related to the rotator cuff.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9uOt57XDdQI
(H) Triceps (Back of Arms)
i. Pushdown = This exercise is performed while standing by pushing down on a bar held at the level of your upper chest. Ir’s important to to keep your elbows at shoulder width and in line with shoulder/legs. Ensure your elbow position remains stable while moving your forearm pushes down the bar. You can use a cable machine or pulldown machine to perform this exercise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-LAMcpzODU
ii. Triceps Extension / French Curl = This exercise is s performed while standing or seated, by lowering a weight held above your head whilst keeping your upper arms motionless, and then raising it again. It can be performed with both arms, or one arm at a time. This isolation exercise emphasises your triceps. Major variants include:
— Lying = You’re lying face up with the weights over your face.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PsO2ZG3lRZ0
— Kickback = You’re bent over with your upper arm parallel to your torso.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6x1ADmd9sz8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_gsUck-7M74
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mu_5h20RYM0
(I) Biceps (Front of Arms)
i. Preacher Curl = This exercise is performed while standing or seated, with your hands hanging down holding weights and palms facing forwards, then curling them up to the shoulders. It can be performed with both arms, or one arm at a time. Common variants include:
— Standing Barbell Curl
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lADgO3wfjT0
— Alternating Rotating Dumbbell Curl
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkCksawX0nA
— Hammer Curl
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zC3nLlEvin4
— The Zottmann Curl = This focuses more on your forearms.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrpRBgswtHs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIWP-FRFNU0
WAIST:
(J) Abdominals & Obliques (Belly)
i. Crunch = This exercise is performed while lying face up on the floor with your knees bent, by curling your shoulders up towards your pelvis. This isolation exercise emphasises your abdominals. You can use your own body weight, a dumbbell or crunch machine to perform this exercise. Major variants include:
— Reverse = You curl your pelvis towards your shoulders
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzRiZ6QgnTA
— Twisting / Side = You lift one shoulder at a time, emphasising your obliques.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eiWk_zPwOuA
— Cable = You pull down on a cable machine while kneeling.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToJeyhydUxU
— Sit-Up = You try to touch your knees with your chest.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AYWtP05Mq5E
— Vertical = You prop up to dangle your legs and pull your knees towards your chest or keep your legs straight and instead pull your legs up to a 90 degree position.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lj0UedPrueU
— Reversing hanging = Using gravity boots or slings, you hand your head down and pull to a 90 or 180 degree form.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5ofbwMGDS0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hmQA3snTyk
ii. Leg Raise = This exercise is performed while sitting on a bench or flat on the floor by raising the knees towards the shoulders, or legs to a vertical upright position. This compound exercise involves your abdominals and hip flexors. You can use your own body weight or a dumbbell to perform this exercise. Major variants include:
— Hanging = You hang from a high bar
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdng3Nm1x_E
— Side = You lie on your side.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgh6sGwtTwk
— Knee Raise = You lie on your back and draw your knees towards your chest.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqTh6NqbAtM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4kQd9eWclE
iii. Russian Twist = This exercise is performed sitting on the floor with your knees bent like in a "sit-up" position with your back typically kept off the floor at a 45° angle, by twisting your abdomen. Then, your extended arms are swung from one side to another in a twisting motion with or without weight. You can use your own body weight, kettlebell, medicine ball or dumbbell to perform this exercise. Major variants of this exercise involve having your back kept off the floor at 45° angle or resting on an exercise ball, and your feet resting on the floor, anchored or kept off the floor.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wkD8rjkodUI
(K) Lower Back
i. Back Extension = This exercise is performed while lying face down partway along a flat or angled bench, so that your hips are supported and the heels secured, by bending down at the waist and then straightening up again. This compound exercise involves your lower back muscles and glutes. You can use your own body weight, dumbbell or back extension machine to perform this exercise. A major variant involves back extension without a bench, with you lying face down on the floor.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ph3pddpKzzw
ii. Deadlift = This exercise is performed by grasping a dead weight on the floor and, while keeping the back very straight, standing up by contracting the erector spinae (primary lower back muscle). This compound exercise strengthens your lower back, as well as your quads, hamstrings and abdominals. When the deadlift performed correctly, the role of the arms is only that of cables attaching the weight to the body, so the musculature of the arms should not be used to lift the weight. If this challenging exercise is poorly executed, it can cause serious injury. There is no movement more basic to everyday life than picking a dead weight up off of the floor, and for this reason focusing on improving one's deadlift w. ill help prevent back injuries.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=op9kVnSso6Q
iii. Good-morning = This weight training exercise involves either a barbell, two dumbbells, or no weight at all is held on your shoulders, behind your head. Then you bend forward and bow at your hips, then recover to an upright position. This exercise is named as such because the movement resembles bowing to greet someone. It strengthens your lower back and hamstrings, and the degree of knee bend used will change the focus with nearly straight-legged bows involves your hamstrings the most.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xj6XUa77qc
iv. Hyperextension (Back Extension) = This exercise works the lower back as well as the mid and upper back, specifically, the erector spinae. You can perform this exercise lying prone on the ground with your arms overhead and lifting your arms, upper torso, and legs as far as possible, or using a Roman chain to hold your feet down and hips up. One variation of the exercise is the bird dog exercise, which is performed lying down or on your knees, where you lift one of your arms and the opposite leg.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CgbmrF-DRSE
v. Pelvic Lift / Tilt = This exercise strengthens your lower back, glute muscles, lower abdominal muscles, and maintains hip muscle balance. You don’t require weights to perform this exercise, although you can place them on your stomach. To perform this exercise, firstly you lie on your back with your knees bent. Then slowly raise your buttocks and pelvis off the floor as high as possible. Hold that position and repeat the process.
Your pelvic floor is a “broad sling of muscles, ligaments and sheet-like tissues that stretch from your pubic bone at the front of your body, to the base of your spine at the back”. It is resistant to stretch and weight as it bounces back. Nevertheless, they become stretched after carrying weight for long periods of time. Additionally, excess weight exerted on your pelvic floor weakens its resistance contributing to its loss of shape over time.
Performing this exercise routinely can strengthen glutes, abs, and lower back muscles. Hence, doctor recommends pelvic lifts to reduce lower back pain, improve posture, and improve bladder control.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTX15Qk1xTM
(L) Hips & Buttocks
i. Dirty Dog Exercise (Hip Side Lifts / Fire Hydrant Exercise) = This exercise strengthens your hips and buttocks and improves your core stability, without using weights. It’s named as such because it resembles the way a dog urinates.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huK1BpXPXO0
ii. Squat = This compound, full body exercise primarily trains the muscles of the thighs, hips and buttocks, Quadriceps Femoris (Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Medialis, Vastus Intermedialis and Rectus Femoris). It also strengthens the bones, ligaments and tendinous insertions throughout the body. This exercise is considered vital for increasing the strength and size of your legs and developing core strength, as well as hone your back, thigh and high stability. Isometrically, your lower back, your upper back, your abdominals, your trunk muscles, your costal muscles, and your shoulders and arms are all essential to the the exercise and thus are trained when squatting with the proper form. It’s 1 of the 3 lifts in the strength sport of powerlifting, together with deadlifts and bench press. It is also considered a staple in many popular recreational exercise programs.
In this context of performed sets, volume refers to the product of the number of repetitions and external weight. Adding resistance to squats impacts on the power and speed of the exercise. If weights weren’t involved, volume can be easily evaluated. However, adding weights into the equation would complicate it and make volume less calculable. More specifically, it is found that chains or rubber bands can increase resistance while exercising. A recent study discovered a linear relationship between the physical demand of exercises with resistance and intensity. Differences in energy expenditure during squatting can be attributed to the various forms of movements, intensities, weights, repetitions, and types of equipment.
If you’re interested in strength training, you can utilise barbell squat in training and rehabilitation programs. With the proper execution, this exercise has the potential to develop knee stability. Conversely, incorrect execution of the squat can lead to serious knee and back injuries. Performing parallel squats can increase knee flexion while activating the quadriceps and hamstrings. If you’re performing standard squats, it’s crucial your skin is vertical to minimise stress on your knees. Variations in this exercise include various knee placements and squat depth. e.g. Your knees can be placed inwards, outward or over your toes; whereas squats can be performed at roughly 20°, 50°, and 80°. Trainers prefer parallel squats over deep squats because there is lesser risk of injury on the cruciate and menisci ligaments compared to the latter.
The primary muscles engaged in this exercise includes your Gluteus Maximus (glutes) and Quadriceps (quads), and your secondary muscles includes your Erector Spinae, Transverse Abdominis, Gluteus Medius / Minimus (abductors), adductors, Soleus, Gastrocnemius and Hamstrings.
To perform a squat, start from a standing position. You can optionally add weight in the form of a loaded barbell, dumbbells or kettlebells. If you’re using a barbell, either brace it across your upper trapezius muscle (a high bar squat) or hold it lower across your upper back and rear deltoids (a low bar squat). Then move your hips backwards and bend your knees and hips to lower to torso and the accompanying weight, before returning to the upright position.
The competition standard of a squat requires the crease of your hip (top surface of the leg at the hip joint) to descend below the top of your knee, which is colloquially known as the “parallel” depth. However, this can be befuddled with many other definitions of “parallel” depth abound, and none of which represents the standard in organised powerlifting. Ordered from shallowest to deepest, other standards include: bottom of the hamstring parallel to the ground, hip joint descending below the top of the knee, or femur parallel to the ground, and the upper part of the upper thigh (i.e. top of the quads) descending below the top of the knee. A squat below parallel qualifies as deep while a squat above parallel qualifies as shallow. Some experts caution against performing deep squats because the forces exerted on the ACL (Anterior Cruciate Ligament) and PCL (Posterior Cruciate Ligament) decrease at high flexion, compressive forces on the menisci and articular cartilages in the knee peak at these same high angles. This makes it difficult to determine the relative safety of deep squats against shallow squats.
While you gradually descend your body during the squat, your hips and knees flex, your ankle dorsiflex (extend) and muscles around the joint contract eccentrically, reaching maximal contraction at the bottom of the movement while slowing and reversing descent. Muscles around your hip provide power out of your bottom. If your knees slide forward or cave in then tension is absorbed by the hamstrings, which hinders power on the ascent. Whilst you return to the vertical position, your muscles contract concentrically, your hips and knees extend while your ankle plantarflex.
You should be wary to not descend too rapidly and flex your torso too far forward because it would risk failure to complete the lift and cause injury. This occurs when the descent causes your squatting muscles to relax, causing tightness at the bottom to be lost as a result. Overflexing your torso greatly y increases the forces exerted on the lower back, risking a spinal disc herniation. The health of your knee joint may be in jeopardy if your knee is not aligned with the direction of the toes. If that’s the case during movement, this results in twisting/shearing of the joint and unwanted torque affecting the ligaments which can soon result in injury. Therefore, it’s recommend to have your knee follow your toes, and ensure they are slightly pointed out in order to track the knee properly.
Here are some common squat posture mistakes you must avoid:
- Raising your heels off the floor compromises your balance and reduces the contribution of the gluteus and hamstring muscles.
- Failing to align your knees with your toes would force them to enter a valgus position, which adversely stresses the knee joint.
- Placing your feet in an compensatory or asymmetric position can lead to structural problems in the movement.
- Allowing your back to round
To reduce the risk of injury and eliminate the requirement of a sporting partner, you can use a power cage. By putting the bar on a track, the Smith machine reduces the role of hip movement in the squat, resembling a leg press. You can also use a monolift to perform a squat without taking a few steps back with weight on as opposed to conventional racks. However, not many powerlifting federations allow a monolift in competitions (WPO, GPC, IPO). Other equipment like a weight lifting belt to help support your torso, and boards to wedge beneath your ankle to improve stability. This permits deeper squats, though weightlifting shoes have wooden wedges built into the sole to achieve the same effect. Wrist straps are recommended because they support your wrist and help to keep it in a straightened position. The proper way to wear a wrist strap is to wrap it around your wrist above and below the joint, thus limiting movement of the joint. Some athletes discourage the use of heeled wedges and related equipment because they believe it worsens form over the long term. The barbell can also be cushioned with a special padded sleeve.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aclHkVaku9U
The squat has many variants, some of which can be combined:
a) Barbell:
— Back Squat = To perform this exercise, you hold the bar on the back of the body upon the upper trapezius muscle, near to the base of the neck. Alternatively, you can hold it lower across the upper back and rear deltoids. If you’re a powerlifter, hold the barbell in a lower position in order to create a lever advantage. This variation is called a “low bar” or powerlifting squat. If you’re a weightlifter, hold it in a higher position which produces a posture closer to that of the clean and jerk. This variation is called a “high bar” or olympic squat.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ultWZbUMPL8
— Sumo Squat = To perform this exercise, rest the barbell on your shoulders whilst in the usual squat position. Spread your legs so they’re slightly wider than shoulder width apart and point your feet outwards. During the squat, you should feel your adductor longues and adductor magnus muscles, found on your inner thigh, stretching.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZuXKqRbT9k
— Box Squat = To perform this exercise, at the bottom of the squat, sit down on a bench or other type of support then rise again. Pausing on the box generates additional stimulus in the hips and glutes. There’s debate regarding this form of isometric training. Some people argue it provides greater gains in the squat compared to a traditional Olympic style squat, while others contend that the increased spinal loading creates more opportunity for injury.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBc_2Jyp3tM
— Front Squat = To perform this exercise, hold the weight (barbell) in front of your body across the clavicles and deltoids in either a clean grip or with the arms crossed and hands placed on top of the barbell.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4ytaCJZpl0
— Hack Squat = To perform this exercise, hold the barbell in your hands just behind the legs. Also called the “rear deadlift”, this exercise was first known as the Hacke (heel) in Germany. According to European strength sports expert and Germanist Emmanuel Legeard, this name was derived from the original form of the exercise where the heels were joined. It was first performed by Prussian soldiers who used to click their heels ("Hacken zusammen”). The hack squat was popularised in English-speaking countries by early 1900s wrestler George Hackenschmidt.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdtaJRBqwes
— Overhead Squat = To perform this exercise, hold the barbell overhead in a wide-arm snatch grip. It’s optional to use a closer grip if your balance allows it.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RD_vUnqwqqI
— Zercher Squat = To perform this exercise, hold the barbell in the crooks of your arms, on the inside of your elbow. Then deadlift the barbell, holding it against your thighs and squat into the lower portion of the squat. Next, hold the bar on the thighs as you position the crook of your arm under the bar and then stand up. Reverse the sequence once you have performed the desired number of repetitions. This exercise was named after a 1930s strongman called Ed Zercher.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Da75bVCfTNo
— Loaded Squat Jump = To perform this exercise, position the barbell similarly to the back squat. Then squat down, before moving upwards into a jump, and then land in approximately the same position. This is a form of loaded plyometric exercise that aims to increase explosive power. Variations of this exercise may involve the use of a trap bar or dumbbells.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBXPkf1GO8w
b) Lunge
— Split Squat = This exercise is an assisted one-legged squat where your non-lifting leg rests on the ground a few paces behind you, like in the static lunge.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SGHnCftrZkA
— Bulgarian Squat = This exercise is performed much like a split squat, however the difference is your foot of the non-lifting leg rests on a knee-high platform behind you.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2C-uNgKwPLE
c) Other
— Belt Squat = This exercise is performed the same as other squat variations except the weight is attached to a hip belt i.e. a dip belt.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oLhEYlTjXyQ
— Goblet Squat = This exercise is performed while holding a kettlebell next to your chest and abdomen with both hands.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MeIiIdhvXT4
— Sissy Squat = This exercise has several variations depending on the equipment or object you use. The most common variant involves holding a dumbbell behind your leg while your heels are lifted off the ground and your torso remains flat while you leans backwards. Another variation involves holding a plate to your chest with one arm holding onto a chair or beam for support. Unlike most other squat variations, the sissy squat was promoted by Vince Gironda as an isolation exercise to emphasise the rectus femoris.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUiFlZ2FsKA
— Smith Squat = This exercise utilises the Smith machine. A Smith squat is often considered inferior to the free-weight variant i.e. Hack Squat, because of the lack of recruitment of auxiliary muscles and limited range of movement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHnX-aimA4E
— Trap Bar Squat = This exercise involves holding a trap bar with your hands at the sides.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHFWSzQpdpA
d) Bodyweight
— Bodyweight Squat = This exercise doesn’t require a weight nor barbell, often performed at higher repetitions than other variants.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEcvBUu5g0M
— Overhead Squat = This non-weight bearing variation involves your hands facing each other overhead, your biceps aligning with your ears, and your feet hip-width apart. This exercise predicts total-body flexibility, mobility, and possible lower body dysfunction.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RD_vUnqwqqI
— Face The Wall Squat = This exercise can be performed with or without weights, which primarily strengthens your vertebrae tissues. However, the Chinese variant (面壁蹲墙) doesn’t utilise weights, which involves your toes, knees and nose lining up almost touching the wall. Advanced forms include shoeless, having your wrists crossed behind the back, and your fists in front of your forehead, all of which performed with your toes and knees closed and touching the wall.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ke_0o_rt_eI
— Hindu Squat = This exercise is performed without weight where your heels are raised, your body weight is placed on your toes, and your knees track far past the toes. It is also named as “baithak” and was used by ancient Indian wrestlers under the name baithaks. It develops strength, endurance and flexibility throughout the legs, calves, lower back and thighs.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vw2OT_-M8ek
— Hindu Jumper Squat = This exercise is similar to the Hindu squat, but the difference is a bounce / light forward or backward jump of about 6 inches added before and after each rep. Then you land in a squat with your heels elevated. Finally you jump back to the starting position. Repeat as many times as you can.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4_GXMGz1dyU
— Jump Squat = This plyometrics exercise involves you engaging in a rapid eccentric contraction and jumping forcefully off the floor at the top of the range of motion.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Azl5tkCzDcc
— Pistol = This exercise involves a bodyweight single leg squat performed to full depth, while your other leg is extended off the floor. Optionally, dumbbells, kettlebells and medicine bells can be added for resistance.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjxQrgLsty4
— Shrimp Squat = Also known as the flamingo squat, this is a variation of the pistol squat involving bending and placing your non-working leg behind your working leg while squatting, perhaps held behind in one of your hands.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FBuC-VPbRY
— Monkey Fucker = This exercise is used mainly in American military trainings that acts as warmup before a session of physical activity. To perform this squat variation, you stand with your feet at the distance of shoulder length. You would be in a bent position and your arms are placed between your legs, and around to the outside of your ankles and grab the back of the ankle. During this exercise lower your hips repeatedly creating the appearance that would lead to its odd choice of a name.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULbo_5u9pQE
There are a number of world records involving squats:
— On 8 October 2011, Jonas Rantanen (Finland) performed a squat with a weight of 575 kg (1268 lb) at the Bullfarm Powerlifting Championships in Helsinki.
— Dustin Slepicka (USA) holds the single-ply squat record at 500 kg (1102 lb).
— On 22 July and September 2017, Vlad Alhazov and Mojtaba Maleki respectively both hold the raw world record with knee wraps at 500 kg (1102 lb).
— At the Arnold Classic in Columbus, Ohio on 4 March 2018, Ray Williams holds raw world record without knee wraps at 485 kg (1053 lb).
— On 5 May 2011, Olga Gemaletdinova holds the women world record at 310.0 kg (684 lb).
— Maria Strik (Netherlands) holds the world record for the most squats in 2 minutes with 130 kg currently standing at 29.
— On November 2007, Paddy Doyle (UK) holds the world record for the most bodyweight squats in 1 hour by a male, currently standing at 4708.
— On December 2007, Dr. Thienna Ho (Vietnamese) holds the world record most bodyweight sumo squats in 1 hour by a female, currently standing at 5135.
— Silvio Sabba (Italy) is the current world record holder for:
- Most single leg squats (pistols) in 1 minute: 47 (January 2012).
- Most squats in 1 minute carrying a 60 lb pack: 47 (June 2016).
- Most squats in 1 minute carrying an 80 lb pack: 42 (July 2016).
- Most pistol squats on a scaffold pole in 1 minute: 30 (October 2013).
- Most pistol squats on an american football ball in 1 minute: 23 (July 2015).
(M) Forearms
i. Wrist Curl = This weight training isolation exercise works the wrist flexor muscles of the forearm. It’s recommended to be performed in conjunction with the reverse wrist curl (wrist extension) to ensure equal development of the wrist flexor and wrist extensor muscles. They can be performed with a dumbbell or with both hands holding a barbell. Performing a seated wrist curl involves you sitting on a bench with bent knees and resting your forearms on your thigh, or with your forearms on a bench and hands hanging off the edge. Your palm should be facing up and your hand(s) should be free to move completely up and down. Initially, your wrist should be bent back so that your fingers are almost pointing down at the floor. Then you steadily raise the weight by using your forearm muscles to bring your hand up as far as possible. Ensure your forearm itself rests on your thigh. Then slowly lower the weight back to the original position.
If you’re performing a standing wrist curl, place a barbell in each of your hands with your palms facing backwards. Ensure the bar is behind you before you start. The same motion can be performed in the same manner as in the seated wrist curl. The range of motion is smaller but the standing wrist curl offers the benefit of providing the most stress on the target muscles at their peak contraction.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMrgVl-2tnc
Muscle contractions can be described based on 2 variables: force and length. Force itself can be differentiated as either:
— Tension = The force exerted by the muscle on an object
— Load = The force exerted by an object on the muscle.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIYhrj4QBWU
In natural movements that underlie locomotor activity, muscle contractions are multifaceted as they produce changes in length and tension in a time-varying manner. Therefore, neither length nor tension would remain constant when the muscle is active during locomotor activity. There are 2 types of muscle contractions:
(a) Isometric Contraction = Muscle tension changes without any corresponding changes in muscle length. An example involves muscles of the hand and forearm gripping an object, where the joints of the hand are immotile, but muscles generate sufficient force to prevent the object from being dropped.
(b) Isotonic Contraction = Muscle length changes while muscle tension remains constant. This occurs when a muscle's force of contraction matches the total load on the muscle. There are 2 types of isotonic contractions:
— Concentric = Muscle tension is sufficient to overcome the load, so the muscle shortens as it contracts. This occurs when the force generated by the muscle exceeds the load opposing its contraction. A muscle is stimulated to contract according to the sliding filament theory, which occurs throughout the length of the muscle. This generates a force at the origin and insertion, causing the muscle to shorten and changing the angle of the joint. E.g. At the elbow, concentric contraction of the biceps causes the arm to bend at the elbow as the hand moved from the leg to the shoulder, hence it generates a biceps curl. On the other hand, concentric contraction of the triceps changes the angle of the joint in the opposite direction, which then straightens the arm and moves the hand towards the leg.
— Eccentric = The tension generated while isometric is insufficient to overcome the external load on the muscle, therefore the muscle fibres lengthen as they contract. Rather than working to pull a joint in the direction of the muscle contraction, instead the muscle acts to decelerate the joint at the end of a movement or otherwise control the repositioning of a load, and this occurs involuntarily or voluntarily. An example of an involuntary contraction involves attempting to move a weight too heavy for the muscle to lift. An example of a voluntary contraction involves the muscle 'smoothing out' a movement or resisting gravity such as during downhill walking. In the short term, strength training involving both eccentric and concentric contractions increases muscular strength more than training with concentric contractions alone. Nevertheless, lengthening contractions greatly increases exercise-induced muscle damage. For instance, eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle is initiated with a bent elbow, which straightens as the hand moves away from the shoulder. Whereas, eccentric contraction of the triceps muscle is initiated with a straightened elbow, which bends as the hand moves towards the shoulder. Desmin, Titin and other Z-line proteins are theorised to be involved in eccentric contractions, but their mechanism is poorly understood in comparison to cross-bridge cycling in concentric contractions.
When muscle exerts a negative amount of work i.e. work is being exerted on the muscle, chemical energy in the form of fat, Glucose or ATP is consumed nonetheless. Less energy would be consumed during a concentric contraction of the same force. For instance, you expend more energy walking up a flight of stairs compared to walking down the same flight stairs.
Compared to concentric loading, heavy eccentric overloading can damage the muscles during muscle building or strength training exercises. Eccentric contractions used in weight training are normally called negatives. Concentric contractions involves muscle myofilaments sliding past each other, pulling the Z-lines together. On the other hand, eccentric contractions involves myofilaments sliding past each other the opposite way, though it’s unknown which way the myosin heads moves. Exercise featuring a heavy eccentric load can actually support a greater weight which increases muscle strength by about 40%, however they result in greater muscular damage and delayed onset muscle soreness 1 - 2 days later. If your exercise incorporates both eccentric and concentric muscular contractions (i.e., involving a strong contraction and a controlled lowering of the weight), you can achieve greater gains in strength than concentric contractions alone. While unaccustomed heavy eccentric contractions can easily lead to overtraining, moderate training is recommended to confer protection against injury.
Eccentric contractions normally act as a braking force in opposition to a concentric contraction in order to protect your joints from serious damage. They maintain the smoothness of your motion during routine movement and decelerate rapid movements such as a punch or throw. e.g. Baseball pitchers train their rapid movements by reducing eccentric braking in order to develop greater power throughout the movement. Research on eccentric contractions is currently ongoing regarding their role in speed rehabilitation of weak or injured tendons. So far it’s known that high-load eccentric contractions can alleviate signs of Achilles tendonitis and patellar tendonitis (also known as jumper's knee or patellar tendonosis).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calisthenics
Calisthenics is a form of exercise consisting of a variety of gross motor movements including running, standing, grasping, pushing, etc. They are often performed rhythmically and with minimal equipment, so essentially they are bodyweight exercises. Through movements such as pulling or pushing upwards, bending, jumping, or swinging, using only your body weight for resistance, it helps increase body strength, body fitness, and flexibility. This is usually conducted in concert with stretches. When performed vigorously and with variety, the benefits calisthenics provides are muscular and aerobic conditioning, and improvements to psychomotor skills such as balance, agility and coordination. Performers of calisthenics consider it “movement through space”, meaning free unrestricted and boundless movement. Urban calisthenics are a form of street workout where groups perform exercise routines in urban areas. Individuals train in groups together performing advanced calisthenics skills such as muscle-ups, levers, and various freestyle moves such as spins and flips. Many sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as part of the synchronised physical training to increase group cohesion and discipline. One of the tasks is the customised “call and response” routine. It is growing in popularity as a component of physical education in primary and secondary schools over much of the globe. In addition to general fitness, calisthenic exercises are often used as baseline physical evaluations for military organisations around the world like the U.S. Army Physical Fitness Test and U.S.M.C. Physical Fitness Test.
The word ‘calisthenics’ comes from the ancient Greek words kallos (κάλλος) and sthenos (σθένος). Kallos means "beauty" or “beautiful” (emphasising the aesthetic pleasure that derives from the perfection of the human body). Sthenos means "strength" (great mental strength, courage, strength and determination). Therefore, calisthenics is defined as the art of using your bodyweight as resistance in order to develop physique.
During the 19th century, the disciples of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn brought their version of gymnastic to the United States, while Catherine Beecher and Dio Lewis set up physical education programs for women. Organised Americans calisthenic systems took a back seat to competitive sports after the Battle of the Systems, when the states mandated physical education systems. In the 1960s, the Royal Canadian Air Force’s calisthenics program was published in order to help launch modern fitness culture. People then associated calisthenics with the rapidly growing international sport ‘street workout’. As a sport, athletes competed against one other by each showing their bodyweight strength and control in timed routines to impress a panel of judges. As of 2015, the World Street Workout & Calisthenics Federation (WSWCF) based in Riga, Latvia orchestrates the annual National Championships in up to 50 different countries. It also hosts the World Championships for all the national champions to compete at one competition. Based in Los Angeles, California (CA), the World Calisthenics Organisation (WCO) promotes a series of competitions known globally as, Battle of the Bars. It introduced the first ever set of rules for formal competitions, including weight classes, timed round system, original judging criteria and a 10-point must system. This gave the increasing number of athletes worldwide an opportunity to compete in these global competitions.
In addition to the various stretches, some of the more common calisthenic exercises, described in detail above, include:
— Muscle-ups, squat jumps (box jumps), front lever, push-ups, pull-ups, chin-ups, squats, back lever, handstand, dips, hyperextensions, leg raises, planks, shuttle runs, burpees and L-sit.
— Planks = This describes a person holding the 'top' position of a push-up for extended periods of time. Your rectus abdominis is primarily involved in this exercise.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASdvN_XEl_c
— Shuttle Runs = This exercise involves running back and forth between 2 points (or cones) 5-40 meters apart, as fast as possible, with a touchdown. It emphasises the movements of stopping, turning back and accelerating back to a sprint as quickly as possible.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3L542RM5qQ
— Burpees = This full body calisthenics workout emphasises your abdominal muscles, chest, arms, legs, and some parts of the back.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZgVxmf6jkA
— L-sit = This exercise is an an acrobatic body position in which all body weight rests on the hands, with the torso held in a slightly forward-leaning orientation, with legs held horizontally so that each leg forms a nominal right-angle with the torso. The right-angle causes the body to have a notable "L" shape, hence the name “L-sit”. It requires you to keep your core tensed and hold your legs horizontal so your body sits in a perfect 'L' position, which requires significant abdominal strength and a high level of hamstring flexibility.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ipRegcjoXc
In modern society, more outdoor fitness training areas and outdoor gyms are being constructed around the world. Some are designed especially for calisthenics training and most are free to use by the public. These calisthenic parks contains equipment like pull-up bars, monkey bars, parallel bars and box jumps at one location. Freely accessible online maps exist that show the location and sample photos of calisthenics parks around the world.
Circuit training is a form of body conditioning / endurance training / resistance training at high intensities that targets strength building or muscular endurance. An “exercise circuit” refers to the completion of all prescribed exercises in the program. When you complete one circuit, then you begin the first exercise again for the next circuit. This program was developed by R.E. Morgan and G.T. Anderson in 1953 at the University of Leeds in England. The aim of a circuit is to work each each section of the body individually. Typical activities include:
— Upper Body: Pushups, Bench dips, Back extensions, Medicine ball chest pass, Bench lift, Inclined press up
— Core & Trunk: Situps (lower abdominal), Stomach crunch (upper abdominal), Back extension chest raise
— Lower Body: Squat jumps, Compass jumps, Astride jumps, Step ups, Shuttle runs, Hopping shuttles, Bench squats
— Total Body: Burpees, Treadmills, Squat thrusts, Skipping, Jogging
Studies at Baylor University and The Cooper Institute conclude that circuit training is the most time efficient way to enhance cardiovascular fitness and muscle endurance. Furthermore, compared to other forms of exercise or diet, women who undergo circuit training successfully achieve and maintain their goals for a longer period of time. Morgan and Anderson claim “the most profound finding of this study, from a health perspective, is circuit training elicited oxygen consumption values (39% to 51.5% of VO2max) that meet established guidelines of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (ACSM) for the recommended intensity (40% to 85% of VO2maxR) of exercise for developing and maintaining cardio-respiratory fitness. Thus, circuit training not only provides a suitable muscular fitness stimulus but also helps to meet ACSM cardiovascular guidelines and the newly published Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 for physical activity.” One notable advantage is that reduced station times encourages participants to lift heavier weights, allowing them to achieve overload with a smaller number of repetitions. Repetitions are typically in the range of 25 to 50 depending on the exerciser’s training goals.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-training
Cross-training is a type of athletic training in sports other than the athlete's usual sport that aims to improve overall performance. It takes advantage of the particular effectiveness of one training method to negate the shortcomings of another.
Cross-training in sports and fitness combines exercises that work various parts of the body. Quite often one particular activity works certain muscle groups, but not others, therefore cross-training aims to eliminate this imbalance.
In Korea and Saudi Arabia, cross-training refers to training in multiple martial arts or fighting systems to become proficient in all the phases of unarmed combat. It’s aimed to overcome the shortcomings of one style by practicing another style that covers the appropriate area. A typical combination involves a striking-based art such as Muay Thai, combined with a grappling-based art such as wrestling and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. It’s suggested that many hybrid martial arts are derivatives of such cross-training. The most notable example are Dan Inosanto's Jeet Kune Do concepts, which is a hybrid of Filipino martial arts, wing chun and savate, Apolaki Krav Maga & Dirty Boxing, a hybrid martial-art blending Krav Maga, Filipino martial arts, silat and Brazilian jiu-jitsu and kajukenbo, an American hybrid art consisting of karate, tang soo do, jujutsu, kenpo, and boxing.
In water sports, cross-training often involves doing exercises and training on land, which is often referred to as “dryland”. In swimming, cross-training frequently includes running, stretching, and other resistance and agility training. Diving dryland exercises include various unique exercises such as on-land landing biomechanics training.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_training
Interval training involves a series of low- to high-intensity workouts interspersed with rest or relief periods. The high-intensity periods are typically at or close to anaerobic exercise, while the recovery periods involve activity of lower intensity. Varying the intensity of effort exercises the heart muscle provides a cardiovascular workout, as well as improve aerobic capacity and permit the exerciser to continue the workout for longer and/or at more intense levels. This type of training is referred to as the organisation of cardiovascular workouts (e.g. cycling, running, rowing). It is prominent in training routines for many sports, but is particularly employed by runners.
Variations of interval training include:
— Fartlek training = Developed in Sweden, incorporates aspects of interval training with regular distance running. Though it sounds funny to some, fartlek means “speed play” in Swedish. It consists of distance running with "bursts of harder running at more irregular points, lengths and speeds compared with interval training”. e.g. A Fartlek training session can consist of a 5-10 min warmup; running at a steady, hard speed for 2 km; rapid walking for 5 minutes (recovery); sprints of 50-60s interspersed with easy running; full-speed uphill for 200 m; rapid walking for one minute; repeating this routine until the time schedule has elapsed (a minimum of 45 minutes). In order to mimic running during specific sports, the development of aerobic and anaerobic capacities, and the adaptability of Fartlek are characteristics it shares with other types of interval training.
— Sprint interval training = Also known as “walk-back sprinting”, this type of training involves sprinting a short distance (anywhere from 100 to 800 metres), then walking back to the starting point (the recovery period), and then repeating the sprint a certain number of times. A challenge mode to this workout may involve sprints starting at predetermined time intervals - e.g. 200 metre sprint, walk back, and sprint again, every 3 minutes. The intention of time intervals is to provide adequate recovery time. Runners use this method of training mainly to add speed to their race and give them a finishing kick.
— High-intensity interval training (HIIT) = This type of training increases the effort expended during the high-intensity intervals, in order to decrease the overall volume of training. DIRT is an acronym occasionally used to denote the variables : D = Distance of each speed interval, I = Interval of recovery between speed intervals, R = Repetitions of speed intervals, and T = Time of each. HIIT consists of repeated, short bursts of exercise, completed at a high level of intensity. These sets of intense activity are followed by a predetermined time of rest or low intensity activity. A 2014 study demonstrated that exercising at higher intensities increased cardiac benefits for humans, compared to when exercising at low or moderate levels. Workouts consisting of an HIIT session forces the body to work harder to replace the oxygen it lost. Research into the benefits of HIIT unveiled its success for reducing fat, especially around the abdominal region. Furthermore according to a 2012 study, when compared to continuous moderate exercise, HIIT proved to burn more calories and increased the amount of fat burned post-HIIT session. However, the lack of free time is one of the main hindrances of exercising. Nonetheless, HIIT is a great alternative for those people because the duration of an HIIT session can be as short as 10 minutes, making it much quicker than conventional workouts.
A March 2016 study uncovered evidence of aerobic interval training benefiting exercisers because it burns more calories in a shorter period, improves aerobic capability at a faster rate, in comparison to continuous-intensity exercise. When overweight and obese individuals participated in high intensity interval training employing 4 sets of 4-minute intervals, their VO2max improved much greater than isocaloric moderate continuous training and a protocol using shorter, 1-minute intervals. A 2014 study found that some exercisers view interval training less monotonous than continuous-intensity exercise. A 2013 study confirmed the effectiveness of sprint interval training in young and healthy individuals compared to continuous endurance training of moderate intensity, because it required less time commitment. A 2010 study discovered evidence that t interval training is also beneficial for older individuals and for those with coronary artery disease, but further study is required.
Interval training is known to improve many aspects of human physiology such as enhancing lactate threshold and increasing VO2max in athletes. A few 2014 studies have demonstrated Lactate threshold as a significant factor in determining performance for long distance running events. A higher VO2max allows athletes to intake more oxygen while exercising, enhancing the capability to sustain larger spans of aerobic effort. Furthermore, interval training can induce endurance-like adaptions, corresponding to increased capacity for whole body and skeletal muscle lipid oxidation and enhanced peripheral vascular structure and function. There is further evidence to suggest that interval training assists in managing risk factors of many diseases, including metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, obesity and diabetes. It’s shown to improve insulin action and sensitivity, and generate higher insulin sensitivity, which requires less insulin lower glucose levels in the blood. Hence, it assists patients with Type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome control their glucose levels. Recent studies have noted that a combination of interval training and continuous exercise increases cardiovascular fitness and raises HDL-cholesterol, which reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Moreover, it decreases waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio(WRH), and the sum of skin folds on the body. We can conclude that interval training is the most effective at inducing fat loss than simply training at a moderate intensity for the same duration, due to the metabolism-boosting effects of high intensity intervals.
Outdoor fitness is a type of exercise that takes place outside a building for the purpose of improving physical fitness. It can be performed in a park, in the wilderness, or other outdoor location like your own backyard. Its popularity grew rapidly in the 2nd-half of the 20th century and as a commercial consumer market in the 21st century.
Turnplatz is a 19th-century German outdoor space for gymnastics, promoted by German educator Friedrich Jahn and a political and gymnastic movement called the Turners. After WWII, as people exercised less in their daily and work lives, individualistic, health-oriented physical and recreational activities such as jogging began to prevail. The Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans was written and developed by Bill Orban, and published in 1961. Kenneth Cooper’s book “Aerobics” was first published in 1968 and the mass-market version “The New Aerobics” was published in 1979, which helped launched the modern fitness culture. In the 1970s, there was a running boom causing the development of outdoor fitness trails in the USA and Europe. However, most of the growth in the fitness industry was through indoor gyms and health clubs.
In the 1990s, outdoor fitness boot camps were developed in Australia, the United States and United Kingdom, and in Canada in 2001. In the 21st century, outdoor fitness grew as a commercial consumer market. Outdoor group fitness classes are popularly led by personal trainers or fitness professionals, and a variety of training courses for fitness professionals and certifications for companies specialising in outdoor fitness have been developed.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_therapy
Physical Therapy or Physiotherapy (PT) is one of the allied health professions that utilises mechanical force and movements (bio-mechanics or kinesiology), manual therapy, exercise therapy, and electrotherapy to remediate impairments and promote mobility and function. Physiotherapists’ or physical therapists’ aim is to improve a patient's quality of life through examination, diagnosis, prognosis, physical intervention, and patient education. In addition to clinical practice, other activities encompassed in the physical therapy profession include research, education, consultation and administration. Physical therapy services may be provided as primary care treatment or alongside, or in conjunction with, other medical services. I’ll delve into the details of physiotherapy in another post.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretching
Stretching is a form of physical exercise that deliberately flexes or stretches a specific muscle or tendon (or muscle group) in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. This increases muscle control, flexibility, and range of motion. It’s also used therapeutically to alleviate muscle cramps. In general, stretching is a natural and instinctive activity performed by humans and many other animals, which can be accompanied by yawning. We often stretch instinctively after waking from sleep, after long periods of inactivity, or after exiting confined spaces and areas. Increasing flexibility through stretching is one of the basic tenets of physical fitness. Therefore, it’s common for athletes to stretch before warming up and after exercise in an attempt to reduce risk of injury and increase performance.
However, stretching can be harmful if performed incorrectly. Despite the plethora of stretching techniques, depending on which muscle group is being stretched, some techniques may be ineffective or detrimental, even to the point of causing hypermobility, instability, or permanent damage to the tendons, ligaments, and muscle fibre. The physiological nature of stretching and theories about the effect of various techniques are therefore subject to heavy inquiry. Although static stretching is part of warm-up routines, a 2013 study indicated that it weakens muscles. For this reason, an active dynamic warm-up is recommended before exercise in place of static stretching. An example of an active dynamic warm-up would be movement of the muscle groups with lights weights.
A 2011 study recently shed light on the function of a large protein within the myofibrils of skeletal muscles named Titin. A Magid and Law study demonstrated that the origin of passive muscle tension (which occurs during stretching) is actually within the myofibrils, rather than extracellularly. Due to neurological safeguards against injury, it is normally impossible for adults to stretch most muscle groups to their fullest length without training due to the activation of muscle antagonists as the muscle reaches the limit of its normal range of motion.
There are 2 categories of stretching:
(a) Active:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XeWQQ0uKOUs
This type of stretching eliminates force and its adverse effects from stretching procedures by stimulating and preparing the muscles for use during exercise. It not only stretches the muscles and tissues, but prepares the muscles for the action by activating and warming them up. The neuromechanisms conceptualised by Sir Charles Sherrington (1857 - 1956) “the philosopher of the nervous system”, as applied to active stretching are:
i. Reciprocal inhibition = This occurs when contraction of the opposing antagonist muscles is inhibited. whilst agonist muscles contract. e.g. During alternately flexion and extension of your elbow. Agonist muscles actively contract while opposing muscles that relax are called antagonists.
ii. Muscle Spindles = These are sensory nerve endings in muscle that detect the changes in muscle length and its rate of change.
When force is applied to a muscle, it stimulates the muscle spindles attach to it, which then activate protective reflexes resulting in contraction of that muscle. e.g. Knee jerk response of neurological testing procedures.
While necessary for sports and ordinary motions, this protective reaction is counterproductive for stretching, i.e., lengthening muscles.
1) Around 1904, Sir Charles Sherrington first conceptualised the principle of reciprocal innervation and demonstrated it circa 1913.
2) In 1962, A. D. Munrow's work proposed these principles for ‘active’ mobilising exercises.
3) In 1937, while H. A. DeVries, L. E. Holt and others wandered from this course, P. Williams utilised procedures for his flexion exercises back program.
4) In 1975, Peters and Peters further adapted Sherrington's principles into their program of ‘active stretching’, departing from the popular static stretching designed for specific sports, to address mobility of the entire body.
5) In June 1981, EMG (Electromyographic) studies by S. Blackburn and others have validated Sherrington's principle of reciprocal innervation. Audiovisual electromyography by Peters and Peters supports Sherrington's principle of reciprocal innervation (inhibition) and his description of the reaction of ‘muscle spindles’ to force. These two principles are the basis of ‘active stretching’ procedures.
6) Invented in 1998 by Thomas Sheehan of Columbia University, stretching methods utilising ‘active’ components in conjunction with force are currently in use, which Munrow does not concur.
— Dynamic = This form of active movement tests your body through ranges of motion that better prepare it for the main workout or sporting activity.
— Ballistic = Often confused with dynamic stretching, ballistic stretches are performed farther and faster and pushes their muscles past their normal range of motion. e.g. The ballistic method of touching your toes involves bouncing and jerking towards your feet. Ballistic stretching suits certain athletes that require a large range of motion, higher jumps or forceful kicks like dancers, football players, martial artists or basketball players.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcz3OBkMQ5M
(b) Passive
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3588663/
— PNF (Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) = This stretching technique increases the range of motion and muscle elasticity through 4 theoretical mechanisms: autogenic inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, stress relaxation and the gate control theory. Studies suggest that a combination of these 4 mechanisms enhance the range of motion. If PNF is completed prior to exercise, it decreases performance in maximal effort exercises. If it is performed consistently and post exercise, it increases athletic performance and range of motion. However, further investigation needs to be conducted regarding the theoretical mechanisms of PNF.
— Static = This form of active movement is the opposite of dynamic stretching. This involves holding the stretch for an extended period of time.
Although many people engage in stretching before or after exercise, there is no evidence to suggest that this has any meaningful benefit in preventing muscle soreness. A 2016 study implicated that stretching doesn’t reduce the risk of injury during exercise, except perhaps for runners. However it did found evidence for pre-exercise stretching increasing athletes' range of movement.
There are different positives and negatives for dynamic and static stretching. Static stretches are more intense because it can isolate a muscle group. However it may hinder a person’s athletic performance because the muscle is being over stretched while in this position hold. Once the tension is released, the muscle tightens up and may actually become weaker than it was previously. Furthermore, the longer the duration of static stretching, the more exhausted the muscle becomes. Therefore, it’s shown to negatively impact athletic performance within the categories of power and speed. On the other hand, dynamic stretching doesn’t isolate the muscle group as well or have an intense of a stretch because it’s a movement-based stretch. However, it can increase the circulation of blood flow throughout the body, which in turn increases the amount of oxygen able to be used for an athletic performance. Therefore it’s shown to enhance athletic performances of power and speed compared to static stretching. Nevertheless, both types of stretches positively impact on flexibility over time by increasing muscle and joint elasticity, and increasing the depth and range of motion an athlete is able to reach. These effects are evident in the experiment "acute effects of duration on sprint performance of adolescent football players.” In this experiment, football players were put through different stretching durations of static and dynamic stretching to test their effects. Their on maximum sprinting ability and overall change in flexibility were tested. As a result, both static and dynamic stretching improved the players’ flexibility. While dynamic stretching made no impact on sprint times, static stretching negatively impacted on sprint times. Whereas the duration of dynamic stretching made no impact on the overall results, the longer one was held at static stretching, their overall results worsened. It comprehensively demonstrated that the longer the duration of stretching held, the weaker the muscle became.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_as_exercise
In modern times, yoga is an exercise practice influenced by hatha yoga that involves holding stretches as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, often used for therapeutic purposes. In this sense, yoga often occurs in classes of meditation, imagery, breath work and music.
Much of the research on hatha yoga have been preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomisation, and high risk of bias. This is because hatha yoga doesn’t have specific standardisation of its practice. A 2010 literature review stated despite the promising results arising from preliminary trials, most trials were severely affected by substantial methodological limitations. A 2015 systematic review on the effect of yoga on mood and the brain concluded that "yoga is associated with better regulation of the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system, , as well as a decrease in depressive and anxious symptoms in a range of populations.” Furthermore, it recommended applications of more methodological rigour to future clinical trials. A 2015 review found limited evidence of yoga helping dementia patients perform their daily activities, while a 2010 review concluded that yoga had no effect on those with ADHD. Another 2010 study found weak evidence supporting yoga as an alternative treatment for insomnia, with no evidence that yoga was better than general relaxation. In November 2013, researchers could only find weak evidence to to support the use of hatha yoga as a complementary therapy for rheumatic diseases, as well as little evidence of its safety.
Although it seems relatively safe, yoga isn’t risk free unfortunately. Beginners of yoga must take sensible precautions by avoiding any advanced moves, psychoactive drugs and competitive forms of yoga. A 2012 study discovered that every year a small percentage of yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries. In 2005, the practice of yoga has been cited as a cause of hyperextension or rotation of the neck, which may be a precipitating factor in cervical artery dissection.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics
Gymnastics is a sport that requires balance, strength, flexibility, agility, coordination and endurance. The movements involved in gymnastics contribute to the development of the arms, legs, shoulders, back, chest and abdominal muscle groups. The sport helps develop mental traits such as alertness precision, daring, self-confidence, and self-discipline. It evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks that possessed skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills. Most forms of competitive gymnastics events are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), with each country having its own national governing body (BIW) that affiliate to FIG. One of the best known gymnastic events is competitive artistic gymnastics. This event typically involves the women's events of vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor exercise, as well as the men's events of floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel bars and horizontal bar. Other FIG disciplines include rhythmic gymnastics, trampolining and tumbling, acrobatic gymnastics, and aerobic gymnastics. Disciplines not currently recognised by FIG include wheel gymnastics, aesthetic group gymnastics, men's rhythmic gymnastics, TeamGym and mallakhamba. Participants can include children as young as 20 months old doing kindergym and children's gymnastics, recreational gymnasts of ages 3 and up, competitive gymnasts at varying levels of skill, and world-class athletes. I’ll delve into the gimmicks, history, culture and rules of gymnastics in another post.
The history of fitness portrays some fascination themes relating closely to the 21st century. One similarity is the strong association of military and political might with physical fitness throughout mankind’s advancement. In many ways, this demonstrates how much influence our world leaders have on health and fitness. Nonetheless, the mind-body concept experienced a tenuous development. At times, some cultures prescribed spirituality at the expense of the human body whereas others, such as Greek society, upheld the ideal a sound mind can only be discovered in a healthy body. Another interesting development from history is the concept of exercise for the body and music for the soul. Present day fitness programs have evolved this concept harmoniously, with music being a distinctive component to the fitness experience. It seems that as societies become enamoured with wealth, prosperity and self-entertainment, fitness levels decline. In addition, as technology advance with man, physical fitness levels decrease. History offers limited insight in the processes of preventing or u-turning these recourses. Thus, this is a resolution today’s society is challenged to commit to. Perhaps, a combination of all of the extensive research completed on health and fitness and creative minds now in the fitness industry may help solve this part of the fitness puzzle.
ReplyDeleteInformative post. Thanks for sharing
Fitness Trainer In Woodridge
There should probably be a saying somewhere that a good blog should start with the question and this blog is really good. This is important to always keep asking questions while training yourself and keeping yourself fit and we have quite a few blogs on fitness on our website as well at MAE(Martial Art Extreme). Do check us out and also take a glance at our online fitness training programs which have renowned for being the most affordable and the most reputable online fitness training programs.
ReplyDelete